EFFECT OF VITAMINS C AND E INTAKE ON BLOOD ... - EuroJournals

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 

Editor-In-Chief 

Adrian M. Steinberg, Wissenschaftlicher Forscher 

ISSN: 1450-2267 

Volume 2, Number 1 

January, 2006 

Editorial Advisory Board 

Leo V. Ryan, DePaul University 

Richard J. Hunter, Seton Hall University 

Said Elnashaie, Auburn University 

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Mete Feridun, Cyprus International University 

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1

European Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 2, Number 1 (2006) 

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European Journal of Social Sciences 

Volume 2, Number 1 

January, 2006 

Contents 

Motivation and labour turnover among university Teachers in southwestern nigeri ………………. 1-13 

Ologunde, Adedoyin Olusola, Asaolu, T.O., Elumilade, David Oladapo 

International Co-operation As A Necessary Condition Of Successful Counter-Terrorism ……….. 14-21 

Christos Floros, John Mylonakis 

Development Inequalities in Osun State, Southwestern Nigeria ………………………………….. 22-37 

O. A. Ajala and A. S. Aguda 

An overview of selected theories of adult learning: implications for teacher education 

in the 21 st century nigeria. ……………………………………………………………………….. 38-44 

J. A. Aderinto 

Local government and fiscal stress in contemporary nigeria: an examination ……………………. 45-66 

Ayo A. Adesopo 

Some reflections on the reception of party autonomy and the freedom to contract in 

south african law ………………………………………………………………………………….. 67-73 

Riana Van Der Bank 

Concerns of nigerian preservice teachers and their implications for teacher education …………... 74-84 

Michael U.C. Ejie, Sunday A. Makinde, Michael U.C. ejieh 

High school learners’ attitudes, level of knowledge and level of discrimination 

towards individuals living with hiv/aids ………………………………………………………… 85-96 

C. Strydom, P. Podile 

The Child Naming Game amongst the Xhosas …………………………………………………... 97-101 

Nombulelo I. Monoana 

Making peace through the integrated science curruculum: a case study of the 

nigerian junior secondary school ……………………………………………………………….. 102-110 

Aladejana Anthony Aladejana, Francisca Aladejana 

A study of the prevalence of female genital mutilation and parents’ attitude 

among the yorubas of western Nigeria …………………………………………………………. 111-120 

B.I. Popoola 

Governance, Taxation and Fiscal Policy in Nigeria …………………………………………….. 121-135 

Olu Okotoni


Impact of government-based strategy On employment generation and poverty 

Alleviation in Nigeria …………………………………………………………………………… 136-148 

Benjamin Ayodele Folorunso, Janet O. Olusi, Folorunso B. A. 

Making education services work for rural population ………………………………………….. 149-162 

M. A. Adelabu 

A Review of the Enrolment and Performance of Male and Female Students in 

Education / Economics Programme of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria …….. 163-168 

Bamidele A. Faleye, Odusola O. Dibu-Ojerinde 

Pre-College Economic Education: Aim, Usefulness and Content……..………………………...172-176 

Despina Makridou-Boussiou 

An Assessment of the Contact between Agricultural Extension Agents and Farmers………….178-192 

in Delta State of Nigeria 

Ofuoku, A. U. and Uzokwe, U.


Motivation and Labour Turnover Among University Teachers 

in Southwestern Nigeria 

Ologunde, Adedoyin Olusola 

Department of Management and Accounting, 

Faculty of Administration, Obafemi Awolowo University, 

Ile – Ife, Nigeria. 

Asaolu, T.O. 

Department of Management and Accounting 


Ile-Ife, Nigeria. 

Elumilade, David Oladapo 

Department of Management and Accounting 



Abstract 

The study examined the effect of motivation on labour turnover among university 

teachers in southwestern Nigeria. Subject for the study were four hundred and forty-two 

teachers drawn from two federal and two state universities in the southwestern zone of 

Nigeria. The stratified random sampling technique was used in the selection of subjects. 

Questionnaire method was used to collect relevant data for the study. The data collected 

from the survey ere analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics such as 

percentages, t- test and two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Each of the two 

hypotheses postulated was tested at 0.05 level of significance and the results showed that 

motivation actually affect the labour turnover of the university teachers in southwestern 

Nigeria the findings also showed that the motivation strategies available for university 

teachers in Nigeria are inadequate for their continued stay in the university system and that 

techniques were relatively more motivated by non-economics factors. Economic 

incentives were found to be grossly inadequate for the retention of lecturers in the 

university system. It was therefore recommended that both economic and non-economic 

forms of motivation be employed to keep the university teachers on their job. Also, for 

continued stay, and reasonable level of effectiveness, the environment of the universities 

should be made more conductive for teaching. 

1


Introduction 

The high rate at which university teachers quit their job in Nigeria is one of the problems facing 

university management in Nigeria. Lecturers quit their job usually as a result of unsatisfactory 

situations such as low motivation and poor conditions of service. Oladapo (1987), Ajayi and Ogunjobi 

(2001) and Longe Commission(1991), identified poor facilities, increased enrolment, under funding 

and poor staffing as problems of Nigerian universities. Such problems facing university management 

in Nigeria according to Ibukun (1997) and Ajayi and Ayodele (2002) include: brain drain syndrome; 

graduate unemployment; volatile and militant student unionism; poor student welfare service; rising 

private cost of university education; finance; the unmanageable social demand for education; the 

dichotomy between state and federal universities; drug addiction and secret cult; autonomy; conflict 

and so on. These problems have resulted in making the university environments not conducive for 

effective teaching – learning process; hence, some lecturers prefer to look out for another job where the 

environment is relatively more conducive. To ensure lecturers’ steadfastness and continued stay, 

university management should have willingness on the part of lecturers in addition to the right attitude, 

morale and commitment to make the required contributions in order to achieve a high level of 

production and performance. In general, it may be said that the degree to which this is achieved will 

largely depend on the motivational policy set up by the university management. 

Literature review 

Influence of motivation on workers’ behaviour 

Studies on the influence of motivation on workers behaviour and productivity dates back to 1911 when 

Fredrick W. Taylor the father of scientific management theory presented his ideas on “Pierce-rate 

system”; (Taylor, 1911). Since then, a large number of experiments including the famous Hawthorne 

studies have been done in Industrial Psychology to determine those factors that influence workers’ 

behaviour. Several other motivation theories have since been postulated in an attempt to predict 

workers’ behaviour in organizations. These include Abraham Maslow’s theory; on the hierarchy of 

needs which stated that an unsatisfied need is a motivating force. They suggested that motivation to 

produce stemmed from a present or anticipated state of discontent and a perception of direct connection 

between individual’s production and a state of satisfaction. 

Other theories that contributed in this direction include: Skinner’s(1953) Reinforcement theory, 

Herzberg’s Two-factor theory; which tried to relate motivation and need satisfaction to employee 

performance and productivity, and concluded that positive job attitudes are favourable to increased 

productivity; McGregor’s(1960) Theory X and Theory Y, McClelland’s(1961) Learned needs theory, 

Vroom’s(1964) Expectancy theory, Porter and Lawler’s(1968) Integrative motivational model, and 

Alderfer’s(1972) ERG theory of work motivation. Some theories attempted to predict performance 

behaviour. Locke’s (1968, 1978) Goal-Setting theory and Adam’s (1963) Equity theory emphasized 

the role of social comparisons as an important motivator of behaviour. Likert (1969) was of the opinion 

that the quality of supervision could have a direct correlation with work satisfaction and productivity. 

Mullins, (1999), and, Nwachukwu, (1994) says that the present day managers are of the opinion 

that reward is a very strong motivating factor for workers and they make use of both intrinsic and 

extrinsic factors. Oloko (1977) discovered that Nigerian workers were more committed and motivated 

to work in organizations managed by fellow Nigerians in which they foresee opportunity for 

advancement as limitless, than in organizations managed by foreigners where management and 

supervisors’ positions were regarded as belonging to a special class. However, performance and 

productivity was still low in these Nigerian organizations. According to Oloko in his 1991 study, the 

low level was due to some other factors such as reluctance of supervisors to delegate responsibilities to 

subordinates, reluctance of subordinates to accept responsibilities, which is rational reaction to the 

fixed sum view of power held by their superior, absence of cooperative relationship between and 

2


within grades of employees, and treatment of members and time with careless abandon by 

management. 

Akerele, cited in Aluko(1998) stressed that in Nigeria managers fail to effectively manage their 

human resources. He gave the following as reasons for the ineffectiveness: 

1) Failure of management to provide good quality of work life and failure to carry employees along 

with them, and this result in absenteeism, punctuality problem, accidents, low morale, high-labour 

turnover and other forms of man-day losses. 

2) Management’s inability to provide fair working conditions, which often lead to industrial unrest, 

strikes, protracted negotiations all with serious effects on productivity and labour turnover. 

3) Poor remuneration in relation to profits made by organizations, unjustifiable wage differential 

between high and low income earners in different sectors in the economy also contribute to low 

morale, lack of commitment, low productivity and high labour turnover. 

It is obvious therefore that management’s long standing concern with motivation stems from 

the fact that low worker motivation are thought to be reflected in such circumstance as low 

productivity, strikes, personal conflicts between supervisors and their subordinates, absenteeism and 

high labour turnover (Ajila, 1996). 

Jobs, according to Argyris (1970) have a stable set of identifiable characteristics that are 

relevant to individual needs, wants and aspirations. Where the job characteristics are compatible with a 

person’s needs, the individual will be satisfied. Where the opposite is the case, dissatisfaction sets in 

and this will be manifested in terms of leaving the organization. 

Labour turnover 

Labour turnover is the flow of manpower into and out of an organization (Fapohunda, 1980). The 

inflow of manpower is referred to as accession and the outflow as separation (leaving). Separation may 

be in the form of quits, discharges, lay-offs, retirement, leaves of absence and even death. Accession on 

the other hand has to do with replacements and new hires. Labour turnover is one of the unorganized 

forms of industrial conflict. It is a retreat by employees usually from unsatisfactory situations. 

Satisfaction is however only a part of the answer to the problem of labour turnover. Other factors 

abound in literature but satisfaction cuts across many of these factors. These other factors include: the 

conditions of the labour market (Behrend, 1953), age of the worker, chances of obtaining another job 

and financial responsibilities of workers, among other things. The incidence of labour turnover can at 

times be seen as a reflection of the quality of management skill in securing contentment among the 

people employed. 

A certain amount of labour turnover is inevitable. Illness, accidents, aging, death and a variety 

of personal reasons bring about separation. Too much of labour turnover however can severely reduce 

productivity, as workers are perpetual learners, new to the organization all the time; demoralize 

incumbents and damage an organization’s public image thereby adversely affecting her corporate 

existence. It implies therefore that management should be concerned about the level of labour turnover 

in their organization, determine the degree of it that is healthy or unhealthy for the organization. 

High labour turnover is dangerous as it affects the growth and productivity of an establishment. 

Scholars believe that a core of experienced workers is necessary for the success of an organization. For 

experience on the job and in the organization, workers must be stable (Hackett, 1979). Organizations 

are highly concerned about employee’s leaving because it is generally very costly to select and train 

new employees to replace those who left. There is a general situation of discontent pervading the entire 

labour scene in Nigeria. The Nigerian university teachers are not unaffected by this general state of 

3


anomaly and frustration. The lecturers are not happy with their jobs. Labour turnover rates are high, 

while strike actions are common occurrences. The Guardian Editorial Comment of December, 2003 

noted that in the last 20 years, a sizable number of Nigerian academics have migrated abroad in search 

of greener pastures. Many of them have been absorbed into universities and Centers of Research in 

Europe, America and the Middle East. Nigerian universities have witnessed a series of industrial 

conflicts over the failure of the employers to review their conditions of service and the progressive 

encroachment upon the power and authority of the Governing Council as well as internal day-to-day 

administration of universities through Government directives (Tamuno, 1990). 

On the dilemma of the teaching staff, Sanda (1991) observed that lecturers are living under the 

fear of rationalization, retrenchment or retirement; and they often choose to find their exit before the 

powers give the marching orders. The reasons advanced for the teachers’ leaving include their 

increasing pauperization, diminished power and prestige, salaries and conditions of service, which are 

no more commensurate with their services or contributions. Added to this is the fact that the attributes, 

which normally keep the academic mind in the universities – rich collection of up to date books and 

journals in libraries, functional laboratories, bustling seminars, research grants, have all become rare 

commodities. This brain drain has also been seen as a direct consequence of the failure of Government 

to provide an enabling environment for scholarship as well as what appears to be an established culture 

of anti-intellectualism at the highest level. (The Guardian, December 1, 2003). 

Given this poor state of the Nigerian universities, low morale, poor attitude to work, brain 

drain, dampened linkage, coupled with the implications of good university education for the country’s 

future growth and development, there is the need for a study which will examine how university 

teachers can be motivated in order to prevent high labour turnover in the universities, since high labour 

turnover is a dangerous instability that threatens the realization of the objectives of research and 

development, innovation for efficiency, survival, high performance, good will and credibility of an 

organization, universities inclusive. In the 1960s and 70s, there was no stress, lecturers studied abroad 

and rushed back home after their studies to take appointments. In recent times however, the opposite is 

the case. The deteriorating environment, inflation that render salaries useless, the globalization process 

that has removed geographical barriers among other factors have rendered current motivational factors 

inadequate in keeping lecturers on their jobs. There is therefore the need to come up with appropriate 

policies to reduce labour turnover among Nigerian university teachers by studying and understanding 

how this group of workers can be motivated. 

Statement of the problem 

In every organization, there is the need to influence the amount of effort that workers will put into their 

job for better performance. The problem of how best to motivate individuals to stay-on in the 

organization to achieve desired objectives of the organization have since attracted the attention of 

social scientists, and philosophers in different parts of the world. 

In the past, most managers believed in McGregor’s theory X which says that human beings are 

inherently lazy, have dislike for work and try to avoid it, avoid responsibilities and only seek security 

and so they have to be coerced and controlled to get them to put forth adequate efforts towards the 

achievement of the organization’s objectives. Today, experience has shown that attempts to treat 

employees like machines will result in voluntary quits and low productivity. In recent years, emphasis 

have been placed on the important role motivation plays in getting employees to put in their best 

efforts and various findings have shown that people only put in their best if their needs are met (Aluko, 

1998 and 2001, Mullins, 1999 and Lussier, 2000). Management must be aware that employees have 

their values, attitudes and sentiments that affect their performance to a large extent, and that these 

values, attitudes and sentiments differ from one employee to another. To understand what motivate the 

individual worker, management must know their wants, needs and values and so, the factor that will 

induce people to contribute as efficiently and effectively as possible are those that satisfy their needs. 

High labour turnover is dangerous as it affects the growth and productivity of an establishment. 

4


Scholars believe that a core of experienced workers is necessary for the success of an organization. For 

experience on the job and in the organization, workers must be stable (Hackett, 1979). 

If motivation is lacking in any organization, universities inclusive, there will be 

problems such as: (1) Lack of satisfaction for workers to perform to their full capacity and the 

organization’s human resources will not be optimally utilized. (2) Lukewarm ness to assigned duties. 

(3) Organization’s objectives will not be fully realized since there will be poor quality of work. (4) 

Staff attrition and high rate of labour turnover. 

Objectives of the study 

The general objective of the study was to examine critically the effects of motivation on labour 

turnover among university teachers in Southwestern Nigerian .The specific objectives of the study 

were: 

1) to ascertain the level of voluntary quits in the universities under review. 

2) to identify the various motivations strategies available for academic staff in these universities, 

3) to examine the adequacy or otherwise of these motivational variables, with a view to minimizing 

labour turnover in Nigerian universities. 

Research hypotheses 

1. The motivations available for teachers in the Nigerian universities are inadequate for their continued 

stay in the system 

2. There is no significant difference between economic rewards and non-economic rewards as 

motivational strategies in the Nigerian university system. 

Methodology 

The research design 

The research design for this study is the Ex-post facto design in which the researcher examined 

the effects of a naturalistically occurring treatment after the treatment has occurred rather than creating 

the treatment (Ajila, 1996). The study was a systematic empirical enquiry in which the researcher does 

not have direct control over motivation, since the manifestations have already occurred and thus cannot 

be manipulated. 

Sources of data 

Both primary and secondary data were employed for the study. 

The primary data were obtained through a structured and pretested questionnaire administered on 

respondents between January 2003 and October 2003. Secondary information was obtained from books 

and journals, annual reports and bulletins on university management, newspaper extracts, governments 

publications, previous related research works and university records. 

Population and Sample 

The study focused on four of the ten existing public universities in the southwestern zone of Nigeria. 

Public universities were used because private universities were just springing up in the country as at 

the time of study. Of the ten public universities, five were federal and five were state universities. Two 

federal universities and two state universities were therefore selected for the study, using a sampling 

fraction of 40%. The two federal universities are: Federal University of Technology Akure (FUTA) 

5


and Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU). The two state universities are: Olabisi Onabanjo University 

(OOU) and Ladoke Akintola University of Technology (LAUTECH). The study population consisted 

of lecturers in the ten universities. They constituted the universe to be sampled. The four universities 

were selected using stratified and random sampling techniques. The ten universities were first stratified 

into federal and state universities before two each were randomly selected from each stratum. 

Selection of Respondents 

The method used to draw out sampled respondents was the stratified and random sampling techniques. 

The total number of lecturers in each University was divided into the existing seven strata: Professors 

(Prof), Associate Professors (Ass. P), Senior Lecturers (S.L.), Lecturer I (L1), Lecturer II (L11), 

Assistant Lecturers (A.L.), and Graduate Assistant (G.A.). A simple random sampling technique was 

used to select respondents from each stratum. To get a proportional sample fraction from each stratum 

in each university, at least ten percent of the lecturers in each stratum were randomly selected. In this 

way, each group in the population was represented. The combination of these sub-samples from all the 

strata in all the universities constitutes the sample size. 

The Sample Size 

Table 1: Distribution of respondents (Res.) by Universities 

Rank No in 

O.O.U O.O. U F.U.T.A. F.U.T.A. LAUTECH LAUTECH O.A.U. . OA.U Total Total 

Group 

No of 

Res. 

No in 

Group 

No of Res No in Group No of Res. No in 

6 

Group 

No of 

Res. 

No in 

Group 

Prof 45 5 32 3 22 9 187 39 286 56 

Ass. P 26 4 8 1 5 1 78 16 117 22 

S.L 70 8 62 6 24 10 196 40 352 64 

Ll 110 11 54 6 48 20 215 45 427 82 

Lll 106 11 61 7 57 23 112 24 336 65 

A.L 128 13 70 8 82 27 145 30 425 78 

G.A 68 9 37 4 136 44 84 18 325 75 

Total 553 61 324 35 374 134 1017 212 2268 442 

Source: Field Survey 2003. 

Table 1 shows that there were 2268 lecturers in the four universities. Copies of the questionnaire were 

distributed to 600 respondents but 442 were completed and returned, as shown in Table 2 below. 

No of 

Res.


Table 2: The sample size 

Universities Number Sample fraction 

FUTA 35 11% 

OAU 212 21% 

OOU 61 11% 

LAUTECH 134 36% 

Total 442 20% 


Research Instrument 

A two part, twenty-one item, self - administered questionnaire was the main instrument used. 

As the questionnaire had never been used previously, its face and content validities were ensured by 

experts in the field of organization behaviour and thereafter pretested, yielding a reliability coefficient 

of 0.91. Part A of the instrument provided demographic information of respondents. Six classification 

data variables were tested using a nominal scale of measurement. Part B contained a number of 

statements on job motivation (the explanatory or independent variable) and the extent to which these 

motivational factors motivate lecturers’ continued stay on the job. The type of ordinal scale used is a 

five point Likert-type rating scale. The dependent variable-voluntary labour turnover between 1993 and 

2002 was measured using the U.S labor department formula: 

Number of employees that left during the year x 100 

Total number of employees at mid. year 

Results and discussion of results 

Descriptive statistics 

Table 3 (on page 17) provides descriptive statistics of part A of the questionnaire (classification 

data). From the table, it is evident that the majority of respondents (79%) fall in the 30-49 age 

categories. The majority of the respondents (83%) were male, which is representative of the 

demographics of the male/female ratio of university lecturers in Nigeria. In all, there were 2268 

lecturers in the four sampled universities, 1902 (84%) were male while 366 (16%) were female 

(Ologunde 2003). The majority of respondents were married (85%), while only 15% were not married. 

It was also discovered that majority of the respondents (78%) were recently employed showing that 

most of the old hands have left probably because of poor motivation. This also corroborates the fact 

that 59% of the lecturers were in the junior cadre (L II and below) being recently recruited. 

Table 4 (on page 18) provides descriptive statistics of part B of the questionnaire. The measure 

of central tendency used was the analysis of the mean values of the motivational factors. The lowest 

mean scores were (1.85), indicated by welfare and 1.89 by work environment, while the highest mean 

score was (2.61) by challenging job. The measure of dispersion used was the standard deviation (SD). 

The lowest SD (0.915) for work environment, 0.929 for welfare and 0.940 for salary indicated that 

respondents did not vary too much in their responses regarding these factors. The highest SD (1.28) for 

domestic reasons indicated that respondents varied in their responses towards this factor. All the 

motivational factors examined scored below 70%. Their adequacy in keeping lecturers on their job was 

therefore generally low and hence hypothesis 1 was accepted. 

Table 5 (on page 18) shows the calculated voluntary quits level in the sampled universities. It is 

observed that the turnover rate was relatively higher between 1993 and 1999 in all the sampled 

universities. The reason for this cannot be far fetched from the increase in salary in 1999 that saw 

7


academic staff earning more than thrice their former salaries. This supports the assertion in literature 

that economic rewards like increased salary is one of the factors in the employment situation that 

motivate people to stay on in their jobs and that manipulations of rewards have been found to affect the 

level of labor turnover (Ronen, 1978 and Fapounda, 1980). From 2002, labor turnover has started to 

increase again because after some time, salary will no longer motivate as needs and expectations will 

keep on increasing and also the situation of galloping inflation in Nigeria continue to neutralize the 

effects of increased salaries. The fluctuating nature of the voluntary quit rate could also be adduced to 

the unstable nature of the Nigerian economy. Furthermore, Nigerian lecturers are still not satisfied with 

their salaries, feeling that their salaries are not fair reward for their inputs (efforts, experience, 

intelligence etc) especially when compared with others in the private sectors, politicians and their 

colleagues outside the country. This feeling is supported by the equity theory of motivation usually 

associated with the works of Adams, (1963), Steers and Porter (1991) and Lussier (2000). 

The turnover level in the state universities were however higher than what was obtained in the federal 

universities, for example, in 2002, the rate was 0.8% at OAU but 4% at LAUTECH, In 2001, it was 

0.6% at OAU but 1.7% at LAUTECH etc. This shows that in spite of the fact that the same salary 

structure obtains, lecturers in the state universities were generally more dissatisfied with their work and 

tend to look out for better jobs. This shows further that there are more to job satisfaction than monetary 

rewards or other incentive systems. One major factor that comes out vividly from an interview with a 

lecturer at OOU is the physical working environment factor. The lecturer in question did not like the 

environment but stays on because he couldn’t get any better offer. He, like many others, goes to work 

three times a week and lives in Ibadan, a city quite far from the town the University is situated. This 

can also be attributed to the fact that houses were not provided for lecturers on campus. Previous 

studies (Dalton and Tudor, 1993; Randall, 1990; Somers, 1995; Lee et al, 1992; Greenberg and Baron, 

1997; Lussier, 2000; and Behrend, 1953) support this view. These studies found factors outside the 

employment situation that affect labour turnover to include distance of places of origin from places of 

employment, conditions of journey to work, rural urban origin, general economic condition of the area, 

reputation of the employing organization in the wider society, commitment and job satisfaction. This 

further corroborates the fact that experience has shown that people who work in the rural areas and 

have to travel long distances on bad and dangerous roads tend to seek alternative appointment and quit 

as soon as possible. 

Hypotheses testing 

The T-test for the effect of motivational factors on lecturers continued stay in the university system is 

shown on table 6 below. The motivational factors were grouped into two, economic (1) and noneconomic 

(2) variables. 

Table 6: T-test for the effect of motivational factors on lecturer’s continued stay in the universities 

Group statistics 

Non-economic 

Economic 

variable 

Variable 

N Mean SD Std error 

1 6 918.5000 99.1902 40.4942 

8 

mean 

2 9 981.667 96.677 32.2258


Independent samples test 

Levene’s test for 

Econo 

mic 

variable 

Equal variance 

assumed 

Equal variance not 

assumed 

Source: Field Survey 2003 

equality of variance 

F 

.075 

Sig. 

.788 

T 

-1.227 

t-test for equality of 

Nigeria’s developmental pace seems rather slow and the universities which should be the place 

to prepare the nation for the expected leap forward is ill prepared. This is due partly to the low morale 

of the teachers, which in turn has increased the rate of labour turnover in the system. Lecturers’ will 

put in their best when the work environment is conducive; there are good welfare packages like good 

houses, true free medical facilities, training and development opportunities and other fringe benefits. 

The absence of these will lead to frustration and eventual leaving. Based on the findings of the study, 

the following recommendations were made to increase lecturers’ motivation and reduce their turnover 

rate for the Universities to attain a reasonable level of effectiveness and efficiency. 

9 

Df 

13 

means 

Sig 2- 

tailed 

Mean 

diff 

St Error 

95% CI of the diff 

.241 -63.17 51.47 

-1.221 10.66 .249 -63.17 51.75 -177.51 51.177 

diff 

Lower 

-174.35 

The mean difference is -63.1667, which is very low, showing that there is little difference between the 

two groups of factors. The t calculated is less than the t tabulated -1.227


• Improved conditions of service will immensely motivate lecturers towards better 

performance. Salaries and fringe benefits should be enhanced and made relevant to 

prevailing economic circumstances by reviewing them periodically. 

• Efforts should be made at improving the welfare of Nigeria university teachers. Good 

accommodation, staff schools, good medical and other facilities should be adequately 

provided on campuses. 

• Academic staff developments should be accorded priority since possible growth and 

advancement on the job is a vital motivational factor. Well-designed training programs 

should be emphasized in order to meet the professional needs of university teachers and 

enhance the quality of teaching and be able to retain competent hands and dedicated 

teachers. Well-trained teachers tend to be less likely to leave (Mathis and Jackson, 

2000). 

• Prominence should be given to the provision of research grants. Attendants and 

participation in seminars and conferences should be encouraged to enrich the knowledge 

and skills of teachers. 

• A fair and equitable pay-system will help prevent high turnover. Inadequate rewards 

leads to voluntary turnover. 

• Universities should device means of giving recognition to deserving lecturers. All forms 

of god-fatherism should be discouraged, academic brilliance, innovation, and hard-work 

should be rewarded while indolence and mediocrity punished 

• The issue of deteriorating working environments and dearth of facilities should be 

addressed promptly. 

• Improved quality of supervision will reduce the turnover rate when lecturers believe 

their supervisors are competent, treat them with respect and have their best interest in 

minds 

• The job should be enriched and made more challenging by allowing lecturers to have a 

good chance to take control over the way they do their job and recognize important 

contributions. 

• The promotion prospects should be enhanced so that the lecturers’ sense of achievement 

and advancement will increase. 

10


Table 3: Frequency distribution results 

Characteristics Category Number. % 

Gender 

Male 367 83 

Female 75 17 

Age 

20-29 26 5.9 

30-39 215 48.6 

40-49 123 27.8 

50-59 52 12.8 

60+ 11 2.5 

No response 15 3.4 

Marital status Married 373 84.4 

Single 64 14.5 

Divorced 1 0.23 

No response 4 0.9 

Faculties/ schools Agric. 57 13 

Science 121 27.4 

Education 18 4 

Admin. 17 3.8 

Law 10 2.3 

Sc. Science 37 8.4 

Arts 34 7.7 

Environmental 49 11 

Technology 71 16 

H. Science 20 4.5 

Pharmacy 7 1.6 

Date of Appt. 1970-79 23 5.2 

1980-89 70 15.8 

1990-99 221 50 

2000-2002 112 25 

No response 16 4 

Ranks 

Prof & Ass. P. 48 11 

SL & L1 134 30 

L11, AL &GA 259 59 


11


Table 4: Ranking Of Motivational Factors Using Total Scores and Mean Scores of Respondents. 

Variables 

Achievement 

Advancement 

Enriched job 

Responsibility 

Recognition 

Training & 

Devt. 

Challenging 

job 

Promotion 

Supervision 

quality 

Welfare 

Salary 

Work 

Environment 

Security of 

tenure 

Compatible 

work group 

Domestic 

N 

Statistic 

425 

435 

430 

431 

429 

439 

432 

436 

422 

438 

436 

432 

434 

432 

422 

Total 

Score 

1040 

1018 

843 

1035 

982 

1041 

1129 

958 

872 

809 

874 

818 

1011 

1039 

877 


Mean 

Score 

2.45 

2.34 

1.96 

2.40 

2.29 

2.37 

2.61 

2.20 

2.07 

1.85 

2.00 

1.89 

2.33 

2.41 

2.08 

Actual 

Score 

1700 

1740 

1720 

1724 

1716 

1756 

1728 

1744 

1688 

1752 

1744 

1728 

1736 

1728 

1688 

Percentage Ranking 

61.2 

61.3 

49 

63 

57 

62.1 

65.3 

12 

55 

52 

46.2 

50 

47.3 

58.2 

63.5 

51.95 

Table 5: Voluntary quit level of the sampled Universities 

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 

OAU (Federal) 1.4% 2.4% 1.7% 1.1% 1.6% 2.1% 1.5% 0.7% 0.6% 0.8% 

FUTA (Federal) 2.8% 7.1% 3.7% 1.5% 5.1% 4.3% 3.1% 1.3% 0.9% 6.1% 

LAUTECH (State) 0% 0% 0% 0% 6.7% 0.6% 1.5% 4.4% 1.7% 4.0% 

OOU (State) N O R E C O R D S 


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14


International Co-Operation As A Necessary Condition of 

Successful Counter-Terrorism 

Christos Floros 

5 Androu str., Polydroso, 

152 33, Halanri, Athens, Greece 

E-mail: christosfloros@hotmail.com 

John Mylonakis 

10 Nikiforou str., Glyfada 

166 75, Athens, Greece 

E-mail: imylonakis@panafonet.gr 

Abstract 

By evaluating counter-terrorist approaches a framework in which counter-terrorism has to 

work in order to be successful is formulated and conclusions regarding international 

counter-terrorism methods are offered. In that way, and by applying these findings to 

global patterns of counter-terrorism, further conclusions and ways of action regarding 

successful international counter-terrorist co-operation are identified. Defining terrorism is 

important because offers the framework in which counter-terrorism has to work effectively. 

The analysis of the different theoretical approaches on counter-terrorism patterns has a dual 

purpose: one the one hand, it will be important in our understanding of combating 

terrorism. On the other hand, it will apply theory to practice in the sense that it will allow 

us to evaluate modern counter-terrorism operations. Consequently, conclusions regarding 

international counter-terrorism methods will be offered. 

Key words: Terrorism, International Cooperation, Counter-terrorist agencies 

1. Political terrorism and counter-terrorism 

A definition of terrorism in academic terms has not proved to be an easy task. One reason for that is 

that terrorism often creates controversy by its very nature: is it a political act? Is it a social 

phenomenon? Is it a strategy or an ideology? What acts can be defined as terrorist? Questions as such 

often lead to answers in the form of definitions that neglect certain aspects of terrorism; that is the 

reason why a universally accepted definition of terrorism has yet to be produced. The difficulty 

academics face in defining terrorism is the result of the vast range of violent acts that can be labelled 

‘terrorist’. In addition, even amongst academia there are conflicting views on the characteristic 

elements of terrorism. For example, William McGurn’s definition of terrorism excludes the threat of 

use of force as a necessary element of terrorist activity, a view different from Hoffman’s (McGurn, 

1987, p. 7-14). Peter Sproat, on the other hand, suggests that the state can act as terrorist, in the event 

when a political regime takes action against its citizens, and that he argues, must be also defined as 

terrorism (Sproat, 1991, pp. 19-30). An objective definition of terrorism has yet to be produced. Some 

definitions tend to be extremely inclusive, while other may be extremely exclusive. Adaptation of a 

definition is, therefore, related to the specific angles (academic, political or counter-terrorism) from 

which terrorism is often examined. 

15


Alex Schmid’s attempt to define terrorism in his work Political terrorism: A Research Guide, is 

a notable example of the complexity of the subject: he examined 109 different definitions of 

‘terrorism’, but a concise definition could not be constructed (Schmid, 1984, p. x., and Schmid et al., 

1988, p. 5-6). In the revised 1998 edition of Political Terrorism Schmid admits that the “search for an 

adequate definition is still on” (ibid., p.1). On the same matter of defining terrorism, Walter Laqueur 

has argued that it is neither possible nor worthwhile to make the attempt (Laqueur, 1977, p. 7, and 

Laqueur, 1987, pp. 11 & 142-56). Bruce Hoffman, on the other hand, tried to identify the distinct 

characteristics of terrorism from other forms of violence and based on that distinction he defined 

terrorism as “the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear through violence or the threat of use of 

violence in the pursuit of political change” (Hoffman, 1998, p. 43). 

For the purposes of this article however, we will examine terrorism by adopting Hoffman’s 

definition. The reason for that lies on the fact that this definition provides us with three important 

elements of terrorism: the use (or the threat of use) of violence, the political motivations behind it and 

the psychological element of fear. Additionally, this definition corresponds to the terrorist activity that 

was characterised by the political motivation of the terrorists. After all, terrorism was historically 

related to political motivations. From the period of the French Revolution to the late days of the 

nineteenth century and the emergence of the Russian Narodnaya Volya, politics did matter. Narodnaya 

Volya (or People’s Will) was a group of Russian constitutionalists that was aiming at challenging 

tsarist rule from 1878-1883. The legacy of the Narodnaya Volya was the creation of the ‘Anarchist 

International’ that called for the need of assassination as a means to achieve revolutionary change. 

Consequently, the Anarchist International influenced other revolutionary groups, such as the Serbian 

Narodna Obrana that was active at the early days of the twentieth century. The pursue of political aims 

was often related to violence, although at those ‘early days’ of terrorism violence was seen as the 

selective targeting of specific individuals that were closely associated with the political motivations of 

terrorists. 

2. Counter-terrorism and asymmetry 

Questions of deterrence of terrorism are bound to accompany the phenomenon of terrorism itself. 

Counter-terrorism, or the set of measures that a polity or a group of polities use, in order to cope with 

terrorist activity, tries to address those questions and to offer an adequate answer. 

If we accept that terrorism is an expression of political strategy (Reich, 1990, p. 7), then we also have 

to accept that, as an expression of strategy, terrorism is-by nature-asymmetric (Gray, 2002, pp. 5-14). 

By being asymmetric, it is a form of conflict that “our political, strategic and military cultures regard as 

unusual” (Ibid, p.5). The strategic and asymmetric nature of terrorism can be regarded as a motivator 

for terrorist attacks. If ends and means are considered in the terrorist’s mind to be useful for the 

accomplishment of his purposes, that will offer a form of strategic advantage to his cause concerning 

the state’s reply. Asymmetry implies that the advantage lies with the penetrator as it is difficult to reply 

in kind, and therefore, terrorism can be seen as a form of effective strategy that is worth undertaking. 

The asymmetric nature of terrorism implies that, as a course of action, terrorism can have 

strategic advantages of substantive importance. Those advantages can be operational, if we accept that 

attack is superior to defence, (Betts, 2002, pp. 19-36), and tactical, if we accept that this asymmetric 

nature exists. That renders it difficult for counter-terrorism to respond to terrorism (Gray, 2002, pp. 5- 

14). If that is indeed the case, then it can be argued that an imbalance of power between terrorism and 

counter-terrorism occurs and that imbalance works in favour of terrorism rather than counter-terrorism. 

If terrorism were inferior to counter-terrorism in the sense that no strategic advantage could be gained 

by exercising it, then it would be easier to deter it. 

Consequently, counter-terrorist agencies as well as counter-terrorist techniques and initiatives 

have tried to accommodate these asymmetric elements of terrorism in their attempt to effectively 

combat it. In doing so, three pillars have been established for effective counter-terrorism in the 

twentieth-first century: intelligence gathering, legal framework and decisive action especially in the 

16


form of military intervention (Berkowitz, 2002, pp. 289-300. Although these pillars usually refer to 

international terrorism, they nevertheless provide a guideline for combating domestic terrorism too. 

For, if we accept that international terrorism can be best combated if intelligence, law and intervention 

are used wisely, domestic terrorism can also be combated if the same course of action is followed. This 

of course implies that in the process of countering domestic terrorist organisations, these pillars have to 

be altered in such a way that they will take into consideration the special parameters of the country and 

the terrorist group. 

3. Domestic responses to terrorism 

Domestic terrorist activity has characterised, amongst other places, Western Europe for at least the last 

three decades of the twentieth century. As Pluchinsky puts it, Western European countries “have been 

threatened by a strain or species of terrorist group known as ‘fighting-communist organizations’ 

(FCO). Found predominantly in Western Europe, an FCO is generally a small, lethal, urban terrorist 

group which is guided by Marxist-Leninist ideology” (Alexander & Pluchinsky, 1992, p. 16). In a 

number of cases concerning countering certain such terrorist communist organisations, such as the Red 

Brigates or the Baaden-Meinhof Group, the matter was left with the domestic police forces of each 

country and the political will of the government. Usually, the countering of any such terrorist group 

was the result of a well-coordinated political will and high-quality police effort, especially in the area 

of intelligence gathering and intelligence evaluation. 

One observation that can be made regarding those European counter-terrorism attempts is that 

international co-operation was minimal and in no case a necessary condition for successful counterterrorism. 

In trying to explain why that was indeed the case in European counter-terrorism attempts for 

the last three decades, the answer is probably lying on the collation of two factors: one the one hand, 

the special characteristic of the FCO in the face of targeting domestic targets called for a domestic 

reply. On the other hand, the Cold-War period and the suspicions that were inevitably raised among 

different counter-terrorism branches and agencies not only on a national but also on an international 

scale, made the exchange of information and intelligence difficult and the actual intra-state cooperation 

on a more practical level, impossible. In addition to those factors, one cannot neglect the fact 

that European states, by being sovereign, wished for a domestic reply to terrorist activity within their 

borders in the whole process, from intelligence gathering to the trial and the actual imprisonment of 

terrorists. 

This peculiarity of European counter-terrorism approach was seen as a natural response, 

directly related to the nature of European terrorism. The reason for that is the fact that European as 

opposed to International terrorism from 1970 onwards, was different in methods and in motives. For 

example, by placing ideology in the core of their mindset, and by trying to overthrow the democratic 

governments of their countries of origin in favour of a ‘socialist’ or a ‘communist’ revolutionary 

government, FCO’s actions-in reality-called for a response from the democratic government. On the 

other hand, the fact that the majority of the FCO’s attacks were designed to inflict fear and danger to 

certain people or symbols of the particular ‘capitalist’ society in which they operated as opposed to 

indiscriminate attacks that could endanger the general populace did not provide any real basis for a coordinated 

international co-operation in countering them. 

4. Academic approaches 

In European academic terms, the notion of a domestic response to European terrorism called primarily 

for the ‘protection and maintenance of liberal democracy and the rule of law’ (Wilkinson, 1986, p.125). 

In that way, even intelligence gathering and intelligence or counter-terrorism agencies have to be seen 

operating within the law, without abusing their powers. Another important element of the European 

tradition in countering domestic terrorism is the role of Police forces in the process (Ibid. p. 139 

onwards). The reason for favouring the Police over the Army as the most appropriate body for 

intelligence gathering and counter-terrorism co-ordination has its root in the liberal European tradition 

17


that regards the employment of the Army as a course of last resort. Additionally, the advantages of the 

Police over the Army in counter-terrorism attempts can be considerable. Whereas a high military 

profile in terms of intelligence gathering may escalate the level of hostility of certain sections of the 

society towards the army, the police can use its local community roots and character in order to gather 

useful intelligence. 

In evaluating the European preference of the Police over the Army in countering domestic 

terrorism in the past three decades, one has to keep in mind another parameter, the conscripted nature 

of most European Armies in that period. In theory, and indeed in practice, conscript armies can be 

easily infiltrated by extremist elements of left or right, and consequently the military discipline can be 

undermined. In that way, the delicate issue of countering terrorism can suffer considerable setbacks if 

left in the responsibility of conscript armies. Especially in the case of Greece, where conscription is 

used even today, one can easily detect signs of disaffection and political subversion within the armed 

forces. In that context, the degree that a conscript Army can offer high-quality counter-terrorist 

intelligence it is at least debatable. 

Another area of importance in responding to domestic terrorist activity is the nature of counterterrorism 

itself: by definition, a government or a counter-terrorist agency cannot defend everything of 

value at all times (Gray, 2002, p. 11). The hallow concept of terrorist attack and the many ways it can 

use even on a domestic level, in order to generate violence and fear, make the response to it reactive 

rather than proactive. From that point of view, one can argue that a government faces a considerable, if 

not impossible, task regarding counter-terrorism techniques. The argument can go even further by 

suggesting that terrorism in that context holds a clear advantage over governmental responses. This is 

only part of the equation. For, despite the enormous difficulties a government can face in fighting 

terrorism, previous examples of successful counter-terrorist attempts such as the British response to the 

IRA (Soule, 1989, pp. 31-46) show that there is actually an effective way of combating terrorist 

activity. 

In order to overcome that deficiency in combating terrorism, intelligence can provide an 

adequate answer. In that area, the theory suggests that terrorist groups tend to be very secretive 

formations in order to gain full advantages of the element of surprise. In that way, they will be in a 

position to use the asymmetric nature of terrorism to the maximum extent, thus minimising the ability 

of the state to respond effectively. Interception is therefore of paramount importance from a counterterrorist 

point of view in order to cope with surprise and as Wardlaw put it “intelligence is the first line 

of defence against political terrorism” (Wardlaw, 1989, p. 136). If we accept that proposition, then we 

understand the important role of intelligence in attempts of deterring terrorism: an intelligence service 

of the highest quality can be more than effective in helping counter-terrorist attempts to cope with 

terrorist organisations and their surprise attacks, while at the same time it can be the most important 

prerequisite for any effective counter-insurgency campaign. On those grounds, effective intelligence, 

capable of delivering the desirable results, would be one that would incorporate human intelligence 

(humint) and technical intelligence (techint) (Wolf, 1989, p. 59). 

If intelligence is effective, then the actions of terrorist groups will be anticipated and in many 

cases prevented. But for intelligence to do so, questions about its character must be answered first. For 

those questions to be answered adequately and for the intelligence-gathering background to be properly 

established, the political will has to be ever-present. In order for that to happen and for intelligence to 

provide an effective solution to countering terrorist activity, cultural elements have to be taken into 

consideration as well. 

In the attempt of countering domestic political terrorism, culture refers to two different issues: 

one the one hand lies the cultural and procedural priorities within the government and the intelligence 

community, in the form of evaluating the different courses of action and accepting the most desirable 

one in terms of both viability and success. On the other hand, culture refers to the information and the 

reaction of the public to terrorist attacks and counter-terrorist attempts. It has been argued that in the 

18


quest for an effective counter-terrorist strategy, the role and the reaction of the public is extremely 

important (Crenshaw, 2001, pp.334-5, Veness, 2001, pp. 407-416). 

The public can be proved a valuable asset in fighting terrorism, because by being educated on 

terrorism and on the terrorist tools, it can speed up the police work on counter-terrorism issues. By the 

same token, and if the public and the security forces co-operate in the fight against terrorism, it 

becomes much more difficult for the terrorists to gain the amount of widespread support necessary for 

their ‘messages’ to gain recognition. In that way, the terrorist groups are left in the dark, in the sense 

that the public disregards their actions. 

If we accept the conclusion that analysts of terrorist activity have reached during the latter part 

of the twentieth century, that successful terrorists want “to impress, to play to and for an audience” and 

to “attract the attention of the electronic media and the international press” (Hoffman, 1998, p. 131), 

then we would also agree with the consensus among counter-terrorism experts and academics that 

terrorists wanted more people watching than dead. In other words, the publicity of terrorist actions was 

by itself able to generate enormous amount of fear in a domestic or even in an international audience, 

something that enabled terrorist groups to maximise their political gains and to be successful in 

generating great psychological pressure to that particular audience. In addition, such terrorist actions 

would also contribute to the erosion of the public’s confidence in the state’s ability to protect them 

from acts of terror. In order to reverse that situation in favour of the state, counter-terrorism attempts 

had to re-evaluate the role of the public opinion. As such, public co-operation with the security services 

in preventing terrorist actions can actually be an important counter-terrorist tool. 

As a concluding remark, it can be argued that the European counter-terrorist tradition on 

domestic terrorism is characterised by upholding of the rule of law and by the presence of police as the 

main counter-terrorism agency. Cultural elements in the European political and social tradition favour 

the procedural priorities within the government and the intelligence community, in the form of 

evaluating the different courses of action and accepting the most desirable one in terms of both 

viability and success. In reality, counter-terrorism attempts in Europe are the direct result of political 

will, and as such, politics can influence the character and the nature of the extent in which terrorism 

can be countered. 

The question that is now raised is related to the role, the extent and the form in which 

international co-operation can provide an adequate and successful help in countering incidents of 

domestic terrorism. The next chapter will be an attempt to provide an answer to that question. 

5. International cooperation in countering domestic terrorism 

In the course of domestic Western European terrorist activity from 1970’s onwards, the examples of 

international co-operation in counter-terrorism attempts have been insignificant. The reason for that, as 

outlined in chapter two, was the peculiar nature of indigenous terrorist groups and the suspicion 

between security agencies that act as restrains in any such attempt. When it came to coping with 

terrorism, West European countries preferred to work on a single national basis. In that sense, political 

constrains such as national and economic considerations or even nationalist reservations called for a 

single-handed national rather than international approach to the matter. 

In that area, the example of France is a notable one: the country has a long record of unwilling 

co-operation with its neighbours in extraditing wanted terrorists and more importantly, in exchanging 

intelligence information with the security agencies of other countries. Perhaps the best example of the 

French approach on international co-operation on countering terrorism, is the case of Odrief Hepp, a 

German national that was arrested in Paris in 1987 on suspicion of operating on behalf of a Palestinian 

terrorist group: German counter-terrorists officers remained in the dark for several months, as their 

French counterparts wanted to conclude their own investigation before presenting Hepp or any of the 

material found in his hideout to them. Germany, on the other hand, even when it experienced 

difficulties in coping with national or international terrorist groups operating in its soil (such as RAF or 

19


PLO in the 1970’s), never asked for foreign help or co-operation. The same was indeed the case for the 

British regarding the IRA, the Spanish regarding ETA and Italy regarding the BR. 

These European approaches on make explicitly clear what counter-terrorism was perceived to 

be back in those days: a internal affair, in which international intervention even in the form of cooperation 

had no useful place in it. Despite that fact, the need for successful international co-operation 

has been outlined, in academic terms at least, ever in those days counter-terrorism co-operation has 

been shaped, in the aftermath of the Achille Lauro incident (see Hoffman, 1998, pp.144-5). 

What the Achille Lauro incident made clear, was the changing needs of counter-terrorism. For, 

it was the first time that an incident which involved, although indirectly, a European country (Italy) 

was approached by a supranational counter-terrorism response (with the intervention of US Marines). 

What the Europeans did not understood at that point was the fact that the logical continuation for their 

indigenous terrorist groups were an attempt of internationalisation in their character in order to be kept 

active. By 1987, when the French succeeded in arresting four AD members and by linking AD with 

RAF and ETA, that has became more obvious. In the light of that development, national law 

enforcement agencies were bound to reach their limits in countering terrorism single-handed. 

6. The end of cold war and the changing nature of terrorism 

While European states and counter-terrorist agencies begun to understand the need for an effective cooperation, 

at least at the intelligence section, the end of the Cold War and the years that followed it, 

altered completely the face of terrorism in Europe. By the mid-1990’s, most of Europe’s FCO had 

seized operation, either as a result of the counter-terrorism attempts by domestic law enforcement 

agencies or by self-destructing as their ideology had collapsed together with the collapse of 

communism. By the end of that decade, ETA was the only nationalist-separatist terrorist group that 

remained operational (although considerably less active than previous decades) in Spain, and 17N was 

the only operational FCO in Greece. The rest of the European countries, by eliminating or by escaping 

the threat of domestic terrorism seemed less occupied with the terrorist threat than ever before. 

In relation to that, the issue of international co-operation in countering terrorism, in Europe at 

least, suffered a considerable setback. For, even though the need for such co-operation has been 

highlighted and the political reservations by the European governments seemed to have been put aside, 

the absence of a foe made any such attempt extremely difficult. In the case of Spain, ETA remained an 

internal problem and rightly so. The fact that ETA’s actions were driven from a nationalist point of 

view stresses the deep division both cultural and political between Basques and Spanish people. In that 

context, one can argue that international co-operation would probably create more problems that the 

ones it would solve. An outsider, person or indeed agency, finds difficult to understand the reason that 

lays on the mentality and the divisions between the two elements of the Spanish society. 

Terrorism on the other hand, was also changing. For, the East-West ideological clash that 

explained part of local, national and international patterns of terrorism during the period of the Cold 

War has been replaced by a clash of different civilisations that has brought religion to the foreground. 

As Hoffman suggests, “the religious imperative for terrorism is the most important defining 

characteristic of terrorist activity today”. In that new era, political terrorism could not generate the 

same amount of popular support that was required in order to continue evolving (Hoffman, 1998, Ch., 

3,4 and 7). On the other hand, extreme technological advancements during the same period of time 

have also influenced the character of terrorism. 

Terrorist organisations are now formed on the basis of networked groups rather than following 

the hierarchical structure of the earlier organisations. The implication of that fact lies on the ability of 

terrorists to use information technology and communications in order to control the conduct and the 

outcome of their violent acts. The amorphous and often transnational character of the new form of 

terrorist activity makes networks able to be both adaptable and flexible as well as diverse; it is 

therefore easier for terrorist attacks to have an international dimension and networks to be more 

resilient in counter-terrorism attempts. 

20


7. The aftermath of 9/11 and international cooperation 

Europe was fortunate enough to escape with minor injuries the changing face of terrorism, but US was 

not. On September 11, 2001 the ‘new terrorism’ claimed a tremendously lethal attack on New York 

City. The actual attack and its aftermath have sparkled a discussion on the need for international cooperation 

in the attempt of successful counter-terrorism. The theory that has been put forward calls for 

greater co-operation in the area of intelligence gathering and evaluation, and for the need of a strategic 

national approach comprehending both preventive and response measures (Gray, 2002, pp. 5-14, 

Heymann, 1998, Ch.2 & 8 and Wolf, 1989, pp.55-70). 

In that sense, the first phase of a successful counter-terrorist activity is the need to recognise 

that the terrorist threat exists and not to ignore it. As Gray puts it, “underreaction, let alone no reaction, 

most likely would be interpreted as weakness, perhaps as evidence of successful intimidation” (Ibid, p. 

7). In doing so, the necessity to isolate the adversary and deny him popular support will be of 

paramount importance, because it will attempt to undermine the legitimacy of terrorist attacks. In that 

way, the governmental response will try to force terrorists in making mistakes that will eventually 

make terrorism defeat itself. In theory this proposition is what counter-terrorism is all about: a plan that 

will force the terrorist threat to be defeated by itself. 

8. Conclusions 

The driving force behind successful international co-operation is the building of trust between different 

cultures, different experiences and different techniques in relation to the process of countering 

terrorism. The building of trust is bound to lead to considerable exchange of intelligence and 

information. By relating exchange of information to the different cultures and techniques of each 

counter-terrorism agency, what is created is an actual determination that each such agency will cover 

the omissions of the other and vice versa. In that way, the room for error from the terrorist point of 

view will be halved, as terrorism and counter-terrorism are inter-related processes. What this 

proposition suggests is that counter-terrorism will come one step closer to terrorism. In doing so, the 

asymmetry between terrorism and counter-terrorism will not be so asymmetric as it is now. And 

despite the fact that the tactical advantage of asymmetry favours the terrorist, counter-terrorist planners 

can attempt minimising the level of damage that will result from the element of any surprise terrorist 

attack thus having greater possibility of success in applying the necessary amount of pressure to 

terrorist groups that will eventually result to their demise. 

This theory can be of subsequent importance if international co-operation could be spread in a 

great number of state parties. In that way, mutual assistance especially in intelligence sharing, could 

help in shaping a web of networks in which terrorist groups would not be able to operate as freely as 

they currently do. The problem, however, lies on the fact that any such co-operation has yet to be 

successfully implemented. 

If the answer to that consideration is affirmative or at least not completely negative, then one 

can really examine the possibility of succeeding in counter-terrorism attempts through, and based on, 

international co-operation. 

References 

[1] Alexander, Y., Pluchinsky, D. D., [eds.], 1992, Europe’s Red Terrorists: The Fighting 

Communist Organisations, (London, Frank Cass). 

[2] Berkowitz, B., “Intelligence and the War on Terrorism”, Orbis, vol. 46, no. 2, (Spring 2002), 

pp. 289-300. 

[3] Betts, R. K., “The Soft Underbelly of American Primacy: Tactical Advantages of Terror”, 

Political Science Quarterly, vol. 117, no. 1, (Spring 2002). 

[4] Crenshaw, M., “Counterterrorism Policy and the Political Process”, Studies in Conflict and 

Terrorism, vol. 24, (2001), pp.329-337. 

21


[5] Gray, C. S., “Thinking Asymmetrically in Times of Terror”, Parameters, vol. 32, no. 1, (Spring 

2002). 

[6] Heymann, P. B, 1998, Terrorism and America: A Commonsense Strategy For a Democratic 

Society, (Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press). 

[7] Hoffman, B., 1998, Inside Terrorism, (London, Victor Gollancz). 

[8] Laqueur, W., 1977, Terrorism, (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson). 

[9] Laqueur, W., 1987, The Age of Terrorism, (Boston, MA., Little, Brown & Co.). 

[10] McGurn, 1987, Terrorist or Freedom Fighter? The cost of Confusion, (Institute for European 

and Defence Studies). 

[11] Reich, W., [ed.], 1990, Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of 

Mind, (Cambridge, CUP). 

[12] Schmid, A. P., 1984, Political Terrorism: A Research Guide, (New Brunswick, NJ., Transaction 

Books). 

[13] Schmid, A. P., Jongman, A. J., et al., 1988, Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, 

Authors, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories and Literature, (New Brunswick, NJ., Transaction 

Books). 

[14] Soule, J. W., “Problems in Applying Counterterrorism to Prevent Terrorism: Two Decades of 

Violence in Northern Ireland Reconsidered”, Terrorism, vol. 12, (1989), pp. 31-46. 

[15] Sproat, P., “Can the state be Terrorist?” Terrorism, vol. 14 (1991), no. 1, pp. 19-30. 

[16] Veness, D., “Terrorism and Counterterrorism: an International Perspective”, Studies in Conflict 

and Terrorism, vol. 24, (2001), pp. 407-416. 

[17] Wardlaw, G., 1989, Political Terrorism: Theory, Tactics, and Counter-measures, 2 nd ed., 

(Cambridge, Cambridge University Press). 

[18] Wilkinson, P., 1986, Terrorism and the Liberal State, 2 nd ed., (London, Macmillan). 

[19] Wolf, J. B., 1989, Antiterrorist Initiatives, (New York, Plenum). 

22


Development Inequalities in Osun State, Southwestern Nigeria 

O. A. Ajala and A. S. Aguda 

Dept. of Geography, Faculty of Social Sciences, 

Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile –Ife, Nigeria. 

Abstract 

This paper examined the spatial inequality of development among thirty Local Government 

Areas of Osun State, Southwestern Nigeria. Based on the results of Principal Component 

Analysis and Logistic Regression applied to 45 indices of development in all the LGAs for 

year 2001, the paper identified four major components and six predictor variables as 

determinants of development inequalities among the LGAs in the State. It revealed regional 

inequalities of development in the state. Many development indicators are concentrated in a 

few Local Government Areas that are urban based. Majority of the LGAs are lagging 

behind on the components of development. This portends serious implications for 

development planning in the state. It can be concluded that the economy of the entire state 

is largely underdeveloped. 

Key words : Development, Regional Inequalities 

Introduction 

Despite impressive progress made in economic development, inequality still characterize the pattern of 

economic development in most parts of the World. A substantial proportion of the World’s population 

remains in poverty and the gap between the richest and the poorest group continues to widen (Mbaku, 

1997). 

UNDP (1990) sees the poor as deprived of the basic opportunities to lead long, healthy, and 

creative life due to the mal- distribution of income, assets and human capacities. One of the 

distinguishing characteristics of nearly all who live in poverty is marginality. Marginalization can be 

described in terms of inaccessibility to the means of procuring, transforming and delivering available 

resources more productively and a situation where deliberate pattern of government investment have 

placed some people at a disadvantage. Thus, Aboyade (1975) described being poor as resulting from 

the inequality in the distribution of economic goods, thereby not able to attain normal standard of 

living. Marginalization has been a factor for the increasing level of inequality of development among 

regional units. 

Inequalities perceived in terms of deprivation and marginalization have been significantly 

responsible for the agitations for creation of States and Local Government Areas in Nigeria (Abumere, 

1998a; Ikporukpo,1986). Creation of new States and Local Government areas has been adopted by 

successive National Governments as a policy of reducing the level of inequalities among the area units 

(Abumere,1998b). Osun State of Nigeria is one of the State created through such exercise in 1991. 

Purpose of study 

A fundamental objective of social and economic development of the new democratic dispensation in 

Nigeria is to improving the welfare and living standard of the people (Obasanjo, 1999). Thus an 

understanding of the present levels of development in its spatial form is therefore required as a basis 

23


for formulating development policies that will bring about sustainable growth among regional units. 

Development inequality is at varying degrees within and between Local Government Areas in Osun 

State. This paper seeks among other things, to identify the nature of development inequalities among 

the thirty (30) the Local Government Areas of Osun State. It is also to determine the development 

surface of the State as a basis for understanding the regional inequalities in the State, as well as for 

formulating appropriate development policies. 

Theoretical framework 

Different scholars have given many interpretations to the meaning of development. Some 

scholars tended to equate development with economic growth (Todaro, 1977; Mier, 1964); others have 

argued that development is a multi-dimensional process which involves the reorganization and 

reorientation of the economic and social system. It focused not only on income and output but includes 

radical changes in institutional social and administrative structures as well as in people’s attitudes, 

customs and beliefs, which will lead to a visible improvement in the quality of life of the people. 

Myrdal (1957) saw development as an upward movement of the entire social system. Mabogunje 

(1980) conceptualizes development as involving economic growth, modernization, distributive justice 

and socio-economic transformation. According to Hooder and Lee (1974), development involves not 

only economic growth but also conditions in which people in a society have adequate food and jobs, 

when income inequality among them is greatly reduced and the people are self-reliant. That is, 

development involves a cumulative rise in the standard and quality of life for an increasing proportion 

of the population. It is a process of widening opportunities for individual, social groups and territorially 

organized communities at both small and intermediate scales. It is also the mobilization of the full 

range of the capabilities and resources for the common benefit in social, economic and political terms 

(Stohr and Taylor,1981). 

From various definitions given by scholars, development seems to be man-centred, which leads 

to the structural transformation of the economy, society and culture of the people, and permits selfactualization 

of human potentials. In line with Uphoff (2001) view, development connotes the 

enhancement of quality of life and increasing people’s life chances, their opportunities to get educated, 

to have food, shelter and clothing and to have access to health and water, etc. It is also to move not just 

a little way up the ladder of income distribution but to be able to make some significant jumps and 

most importantly to give their children greater opportunities. 

Development does not appear everywhere and all at once but it takes place over time and space. 

Therefore, it is usually analyzed within a spatio-temporal framework (Friedmann, 1959). Regional 

development, therefore gives spatial as well as territorial dimension to the meaning of development. It 

is thus concerned with the improvement of the living standard of the people in an area and is expected 

to come about through transforming the socio-spatial structures of their productive activities 

(Mabogunje, 1980). Regional development is also concerned with the spatial diffusion of new 

techniques and the establishment of new forms of production all of which involve changes in human 

distributions and movements and in patterns of human activities (Hoyle 1974). It is also a process 

concerned with the locational aspects of development. It incorporates the recognition of spatial 

inequalities in socio-economic welfare and the process at work and the strategies involved in 

modifying changes and bringing more equitable spread of welfare to the majority of the inhabitants of 

the region (Hermansen, 1972). 

One of the basic theories of regional inequality is the “growth pole theory” which was first 

developed by French economist Francis Perroux in 1950. It was later modified as “growth centre 

models” by the works of Myrdal (1957), Hirschman (1958), Ullman (1958) and others such as Hicks 

and Streeten (1980) and Boudeville (1966), which led to a transformation of the growth centre theory 

to a model of regional development. A prominent feature that characterized regional development 

model is the concern about the disparity in level of economic development between and within regions. 

Regional inequality refers to the disparity in level of development within and between various regions. 

24


Myrdal (1957) used the term “circular and cumulative causation” to refer to the phenomenon whereby 

the initial gaps in levels of development between the relatively more developed regions and the poor 

regions tend to widen over a period of time. According to Myrdal, inequalities may begin rather 

gradually in a region as certain areas take the lead ahead of others due to their particular endowments 

in relation to natural man-power or other economic advantages. The operations of the market 

mechanism may therefore produce the initial inequalities. Sometimes however, deliberate public 

policies may start the process through the channeling of resources to particular regions to satisfy 

certain planning objectives. Whatever the initial causes or processes generating the inequalities, 

Myrdal contends that once the spatial pattern emerges, it sets in motion a series of interrelated 

processes which attract population and their supporting activity systems to particular regions. This in 

turn tends to influence and reinforce the processes operating in the region to react upon the emerging 

and growing inequalities in levels of development (Myrdal, 1957). Given this condition, a vicious 

circle is thereby created with positive feedback processes operating to produce “a virtuous upward 

spiral growth in the core regions and a vicious downward growth in the periphery” (Myrdal, 1957). As 

the gaps in levels of development continue to widen the vital capital and human resources of the poor 

regions tend to migrate to the regions, thus leading to further stagnation at the periphery (Mabogunje, 

1968). 

In a related study similar to Myrdal, Hicks and Streeten (1980) asserts that initial advantages 

will determine the location of growth regions. Growth is accentuated by cumulative and derived 

advantages. He also emphasizes flows of capital, labour and commodities between growth and lagging 

regions. The essential point of difference is that he maintains that those flows operate to benefit the 

lagging areas. Ullman’s model buttresses the point that regions within a nation will grow at different 

rates. Growth regions will always maintain their lead position through “self generating momentum”, 

which is due to their enjoyment of both internal and external economies of scale (Ullman, 1958). 

The Growth Pole concept is well manifested in the pattern of settlements in Osun State with 

some having initial advantage of concentration of investments, thus becoming growth centres within 

the State. Since the time of colonial administration in Nigeria, Ibadan the regional capital of former 

Western Region and later Oyo State, had been the major growth centre attracting people and material 

resources for further growth while other areas lagged behind. Perhaps, it was the manifested 

disadvantages of the lagging areas that started the agitation for the creation of more states from the then 

Western Region. This brought about a spread of Government investment into such other states as 

Ondo, Ogun and Oyo States, which were carved out of the former Western Region. Within Oyo State, 

Ibadan still maintained its position as the primate city that attracts all economic activities. However, 

with the creation of Osun State in 1991, there had been a change in the pattern of movement of the 

people and material resources. People from various LGAs now tend toward the state capital, Osogbo, 

for all civil matters, thus attracting other economic opportunities. This initial advantage propelled 

Osogbo ahead of other major towns in the State, thus creating the initial inequality, as government 

investments are always concentrated at the State capital. Likewise, the idea of Local Government 

creation was to further spread government investments to the grass-roots level, by locating the Local 

Government Headquarters in towns considered to be lagging in development. 

The works Akpan (1992, 2000) in South-Eastern Nigeria served as a reference point to this 

study. He used factor analysis, multiple regression and cluster analysis to determine pattern of 

development in the area. He found out that there are six factors accounting for 73% of total variance 

from 26 variables measured in 71 LGAs in the region. These factors were postal communications, 

secondary school education, cooperatives, population-size, cash crop and community development. 

The analysis confirmed the existence of inequality among the 71 LGAs. From the analysis three 

independent variables explained about 70% of total variance. These were population of LGA’s 

headquarters, population of the LGA and Accessibility index of LGA headquarters. Accessibility index 

is measured as the shortest path links between the local government headquarters and other settlements 

within the LGA. In another smaller study, Akpan (2000) examined the pattern and variation in levels of 

25


development among the 24 former Local Administrative Units of Akwa Ibom State. Using factor 

analysis for the data on 26 indicators of development, it was found that the development surface in the 

state could be described in terms of 7 factors. These were, Urbanization, Communication, Revenue, 

Education, Cooperatives, Industry and Agriculture. He established that significant differences existed 

in levels of development among the administrative units and that these units could be categorized into 

three classes as, the developed, fairly developed and the disadvantaged. 

The Study Area 

Osun State is located within latitudes 6 0 55 1 and 8 0 10 1 North and longitudes 3 0 55 1 and 5 0 05 1 

East of South Western Nigeria. It covers a total landmass of about 7997.5484 square kilometers with 

an estimated population of 2,854,832 in 2001 (NPC, 1997). The breakdown of the population figures 

among the 30 LGAs in the state reveals that 15 LGAs have population above 100,000 and 14 others 

have between 50,000 and 100,000 people, while only one has population below 50,000 (Table 1). 

Politically the state is divided into three senatorial districts. Each Senatorial district has ten 

Local Government Areas. Senatorial district one consists of Aiyedaade, Aiyedire, Ede North and 

South, Ejigbo, Egbedore, Irewole, Isokan, Iwo and Ola-Oluwa Local Government Areas. Senatorial 

district two has Boripe, Boluwaduro, Ifedayo, Ifelodun, Ila, Irepodun, Odo-Otin, Olorunda, Orolu and 

Osogbo. Senatorial district three consists of Atakumosa East and West, Ife Central, East, North and 

South, Ilesa East and West, Obokun and Oriade Local Government Areas. 

Methodology 

The data for this study were collected for the State’s 30 Local Government areas (LGAs). Local 

Government area was chosen as the unit of analysis because it is the spatial unit for social and 

administrative organization in Nigeria. It has been adopted by the government, in recent years, as the 

development planning units at the grassroots. Thus, it is the lowest spatial unit for which information 

on most indicators of development can be collected in Nigeria. 

There are indicators that have been used in the measurement of development at micro and 

macro scales depending on the conceptualization of development and the focus of the researcher. For 

this research, data collected include all the available natural and man-made resources in each Local 

Government Area. The data were collected on 45 indicators of development in 2001 from all the 30 

Local Government Areas, and from government ministries and agencies (see Table 2). The raw data 

collected from all sources were subjected to editing and processing (normalized) to avoid introducing 

bias among the LGAs. The data generated was analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA) and 

logistic regression. Mapping technique was also performed, using Geographic Information System 

Software, ArcView version 3.2, for spatial illustrations of some of the findings. The goal of using PCA 

is to reduce a large number of variables to a smaller number of components, which concisely describe 

the relationships among observed variables, as well as to understand the underlying processes of the 

evolving pattern (Tabachnick and Fidell, 1996). PCA has the abilities to summarize data, identify 

salient underlying patterns of relationship within the data set, and eliminate redundant variables and 

inter-correlation in the data set. It is also capable of producing groups and sample ordination in one 

integrated analysis (Gorsuch,1983 ; Adesina, 1994). 

Logistic regression, commonly called Logit regression is used when the dependent variable 

(response variable) is dichotomous (i.e.binary or 0-1). The independent variables may be quantitative, 

categorical or a mixture of the two. 

The basic form of the logistic function is: 

P = 1 

26 

1+ e –z


where, z is the predictor variable and e is the base of natural logarithm equal to 2.71828 and P is an 

estimated probability. When z the predictor variable is more than one then the z is a linear function of 

a set of predictor variable: 

z = b0 +b1x1 +b2x2 + ………BKxK 

This expression is substituted for z in the formular for the logistic function above to become 

multivariate logistic function as: 

P = 1 

1 + e –( b 0 +b 1 x 1 +b 2 x 2 + ………B K x K ) 

All the basic properties of the logistic function are preserved as the function P still range 

between 0 and 1. In logistic regression all predictor variables enter the equation simultaneously and 

extract the significant variables which best explain the probability of the odd in the dependent variable 

(P) . It allows evaluation of the contribution made by each predictor over and above that of the other 

predictors (Retherford and Choe, 1993). In this study logistic regression model is used to examine the 

independent variables that best explain development inequalities among the LGAs in the state. 

Results and discussion 

This section discusses the results of the data analysis. It is divided into three sections: the first presents 

the components of development; the second discusses the development inequalities among the LGAs; 

the third section gives the results of the logistic regression, which relate the development status of the 

LGA to the indices of development. 

(A) Components of develoment in osun state 

`The PCA extracted 13 significant components which jointly account for 89 percent of the total 

variance. The first four components (55.92%) that contributed highly to the total variance in 

terms of eigen values are discuss in this study. Eigen value is the measure of the amount of 

variation accounted for by a component in a set of components identified by PCA. Component 

1 accounts for 21.24 percent of the total variance, which is the most important component of 

development in the State. Eighteen variables loaded significantly out of 45 variables. The 

variables are measures of material prosperity, in terms of electricity consumption, new vehicle 

registration, petrol stations, large manufacturing employment and telephone facility, road 

density, population density and percentage urban population. Others are livestock rearing such 

as poultry, fishery, goat, sheep and pig, which are easily reared within urban areas in 

Southwestern Nigeria. Given the mixture of variables that loaded significantly on this 

component it is clearly an index of development for the State and it is named Urban economic 

prosperity component (Table 2). 

The second component accounts for 17 percent of the total variance with seventeen variables 

loading significantly in the range of .40 and .79 on this component. These are Higher institution 

enrolment (44), Nurses per 10000 population (23), Doctors per 10000 population (v22), Higher 

education institution direct employment (v45), Hotel facilities per 10000 population (v30), and 

Post articles received or sent per 1000 population (v26). Others are Petrol station per 10000 

population (v31), Secondary school enrolment per 1000 per population (v39), Hospital beds per 

1000 population (v21), Banks per 10000 population (29), tarred road (v16), telephone facility 

27


(v27) and new motorcycle registration (v37). The remaining four variables loaded negatively 

but significantly on this component, these include primary school students / teacher ratio (v40), 

secondary school students /teacher ratio (v41), federal allocation (v17) and total local 

government expenditure (v18) as shown in Table 2. This indicates that, these four variables 

have no direct influence on the level of development as measured by component 2. Some 

modernization variables which loaded moderately on this component gives an indication of the 

general level of social equality which summarizes the welfare dimension associated with 

establishment of higher institutions in a region. For instance, apart from enrolment and direct 

employment benefit from such institutions, people benefit immensely from services rendered 

by such institutions. One of such services is access to high quality health facilities in the 

Teaching Hospitals commonly established for universities. However, the low score of 

urbanization status on this component further reveals the relative importance of establishment 

of higher institutions in rural areas specifically, Esa-Oke, Iree and Ila. These variables revealed 

that establishment of higher education institutions in various part of the State has continued to 

impact positively on the state development through the processes of “backwash/ polarization” 

and “spread/ trickledown effect” (Abiodun, 1981). Thus, component 2 is an index of higher 

education development in the State, which is named higher education establishment component 

of development. 

Component 3 contributes 9 percent of the total variance with eigen values of 4.22 . Ten 

variables loaded highly on this component which include cocoa production (v2), manufacturing 

establishment (v33), small scale manufacturing employment (v35), palmkernel production (v3), 

internally generated revenue (v19) and cattle rearing (v5). Others are post office (v24), higher 

education enrolment (V44), secondary school enrolment (v39) and federal allocation (v17), 

which loaded negatively on component 3. These variables shows that agricultural produce and 

small scale manufacturing employment are important aspect of development in the State, thus 

component 3 is named as agricultural produce/ small scale employment component of 

development. 

Component 4, which accounts for 8 percent of the total variance with eigen value of 3.74 has 

seven variables that loaded highly on it. These variables are health facilities (v20), primary 

school enrolment (v38), postal agency (v25), total LGA expenditure (v18), federal allocation 

(V17), post office (v24) and water provision (V12). The mixture of these variables shows that 

infrastructural development especially in the rural areas is also important in the development 

process of the State. One thing to note about this component is that the first three variables that 

loaded highly are variables that are well distributed in the rural LGAs in the State. Thus, this 

component is named infrastructural component of development. The results shows that regional 

development in Osun State can best be described in terms of these four components. 

(B) Development inequalities 

Based on the four components extracted from the results, variations in levels of development 

among the Local Government Areas are discussed. The distribution of components scores 

among the LGAs provided the means of identifying the spatial variation in levels of 

development (Table 3). The component scores are also used as input into the GIS mapping 

technique. 

28


i) Variations in Levels of Development on Component One 

On the first component, 14 out of 30 Local Government Areas have positive scores. Osogbo has the 

highests score of 3.33, followed by Olorunda, Ilesa West and East, and Irepodun Local Government 

Areas are other LGAs that scored above 1 ranging between 1.2 for Ilesa East and 1.5 for Irepodun. The 

remaining nine Local Government Areas in this group scored below 1. Sixteen Local Government 

Areas scored negatively on this component. These are depicted in Figure 1. Aiyedaade, Ife South and 

Ife North LGAs have the lowest scores on this component. One conclusion that can be drawn from 

this is that the forces of polarization or backwash as contained in the Growth Pole theory is in 

operation and perhaps stronger than trickledown or spread effect in the State. It also reflects the process 

of cumulative –causation where by investment in a Growth centre tends to induce other investments in 

the centre at the expense of the surrounding areas as human and material resources continue to drift to 

the developed centres. This process is strengthened by the differential sectoral investment of the State 

Government in favour of the major urban centres. 

ii) Variations in Levels of Development on Component Two 

Spatial inequality in development among the LGAs is also indicated in Component 2. Higher 

Education institutions obviously have significant influence on the scoring of each LGAs. 

Consequently, Local Government Areas with one type of higher institution or the other scored highly 

on this component. As expected, Ife Central LGA that houses one of the first generation universities in 

the country, takes the lead with a score of 3.83. Ilesa West followed it with a score of 1.47. Eleven 

others also scored positively on this component, with scores ranging between 0.1 and 0.88. The LGAs 

with the lower score in this group are Osogbo, Olorunda, Ede North, Boripe, Irewole, Obokun, Iwo, 

Oriade, Ifelodun, Irepodun and Ila. The remaining seventeen LGAs scored negatively on this 

component (Figure 2). 

iii) Variations in Levels of Development on Component Three 

Going by the PCA loadings, Component three was named agricultural produce and small-scale 

industrial employment component. Thirteen LGAs have positive scores on the component. Ife East 

LGA has the highest with a score of 3.32. Ilesa East and Isokan LGAs follow this with 1.39 and 1.22 

respectively. The remaining 10 LGAs had scores that were less than 1. Their scores ranged between 

0.14 in Ife North LGA and 0.89 in Irewole LGA (Figure 3). 

iv) Variations in Levels of Development on Component Four 

Fourteen LGAs had positive scores in this component. Four of the fourteen had more than scores of 1. 

These include Ifedayo, Olorunda, Atakumosa East and Boluwaduro LGAs. Three of these four are 

rural LGAs while Olorunda is the only urban LGA in the group. The remaining ten LGAs scored 

below 1 ranging between 0.04 in Ilesa East LGA and 0.89 in Ila LGA. Sixteen LGAs scored negatively 

on the component (Figure 4). The high scores recorded by Ifedayo, Atakunmosa East and Boluwaduro 

are related to the high number of primary health facilities and high primary school enrolments in the 

areas. 

One inference that one can draw from these results is that development inequalities prevail 

among the Local Government Areas in the State. This requires that policy options be tailored to 

address spatial inequality in such a way as to invigorate development processes in the various parts of 

the state. 

(C) Predictor variables for development 

In this section the logistic regression model is used to examine the predictor variables that best 

explain the variation in levels of development among the LGAs. The dependent variable for 

each observation in the study is the LGAs/Location, which takes the value of 1 if the LGA is 

urban, or 0 if it is rural. The independent variables are the 45 variables in the data set. The 

29


logistic regression was performed using STATA version 7.0 a software package for statistical 

analysis, it has the ability of isolating the significant variables from a set of independent 

variables. 

Table 4 shows the results of the logistic regression. The model accepted 24 out of the 45 

variables as significant predictor variables of development in the State. The odds ratios, Z and 

P>Z values, which gave indications about the strength of each of the variables in the model, are 

also shown in Table 4. Out of the 24 variables brought into the model, only six are significant 

as predictor variables to explain the variations in levels of development among the LGAs in the 

State. These are higher institution enrolment (hienr), postal articles received or sent (partiv), 

local government expenditure (expv), federal allocation (fdalo), primary school enrolment 

(prerv) and population density (podenv). 

The most significant of the six variables identified is Higher education institution. This should 

be expected as higher institutions tend to maintain a strong “pulling” influence on development 

features such as commerce, estate development and vehicular concentrations through 

polarization/ backwash processes. It also tends to contribute to the development of the 

surrounding hinterland through the processes of spread or trickle down effect. Apart from 

establishment of higher education institution, the fiscal system of revenue allocation among the 

LGAs from the federation account and the expenditure pattern at the local government level 

also affect government investment on developmental projects that can be executed at the local 

levels. The fiscal system of State Government investment in different sectors tends to favour 

some LGAs at the expense of the others and this also contributes to the level of inequality 

among the LGAs. The results of the logistic regression therefore revealed that the development 

surface in Osun State is significantly influenced by six variables among the predictor variables. 

Conclusion and recommendation 

The findings in this research have confirmed the existence of inequality of development in the state in 

which many development indicators are concentrated in a few Local Government Areas that are urban 

based, while the majority (24 LGAs) are lagging behind on the components of development. This 

portends serious implications for development planning in the state. First, one can conclude that the 

economy of the entire state is portrayed as being largely underdeveloped. 

Two, inequality in the distribution of the essential facilities and services have resulted in 

impaired growth of the economy, which is manifested in the under-utilization of human and natural 

resources in the state. Thirdly, the urbanization process, which is a rational human solution to readjust 

in relation to the prevailing situation of unbalanced distribution of benefits, may further result in 

stifling of growth in the deprived areas, which will further impoverish the inhabitants. While the 

undue congestion in the favoured areas might be counter productive with negative consequences, the 

observable out-migration from the rural areas is a demonstration of this spontaneous adjustment. 

Spatial disparities in levels of development as revealed in this study can be redressed by 

planned action. To break the circle of poverty in Osun state and other states of Nigeria and to move 

into long-term sustainable development will require the government to provide enabling environment 

for the productive use of resources (see Mbaku, 1997, World Bank 1981). This will involve the 

emergence of a spatial system that allowed natural resources from rural regions to be used productively 

within those regions; facilitate the dissemination of innovation and the delivery of public and 

commercial services; aid in the efficient production and exchange of goods throughout the state and 

national economy, and draw larger numbers of the population into productive economic activities. This 

is crucial for a wide spread of sustainable development and to reduce poverty. 

30


Table 1: Population and land Area by LGAs 

LGA Name Pop. 1991 *Projected 

pop. 

2001 

31 

Land + 

Area 

(km 2 ) 

Percent 

Of state 

Land 

1 Atakumosa East 38105 50370 419.62 5.25 

2 Atakumosa West 60037 79362 502.01 6.28 

3 Aiyedaade 94777 125285 951.37 11.90 

4 Aiyedire 41636 55038 247.87 3.10 

5 Boluwaduro 42392 56037 132.75 1.66 

6 Boripe 82387 108907 107.07 1.34 

7 Ede North 69388 91723 107.55 1.35 

8 Ede South 72975 96465 183.72 2.30 

9 Egbedore 40293 53263 235.44 2.94 

10 Ejigbo 69366 91694 343.84 4.30 

11 Ife Central 96580 127669 168.92 2.11 

12 Ife East 95857 126713 164.46 2.06 

13 Ife North 127677 168776 708.91 8.86 

14 Ife South 88170 116551 647.32 8.09 

15 Ifedayo 24671 32612 201.30 2.51 

16 Ifelodun 76565 101211 110.92 1.39 

17 Ila 50585 66868 190.73 2.39 

18 Ilesa East 78471 103730 65.03 0.81 

19 Ilesa West 60974 80601 57.51 0.72 

20 Irepodun 80415 106300 54.47 0.68 

21 Irewole 77884 102954 233.35 2.92 

22 Isokan 56943 75272 237.02 2.96 

23 Iwo 105401 139329 246.26 3.08 

24 Obokun 61218 80924 464.72 5.81 

25 Odo-Otin 82314 110810 260.83 3.26 

26 Ola Oluwa 39454 52154 298.77 3.74 

27 Olorunda 83347 110176 85.07 1.06 

28 Oriade 80833 106853 447.99 5.60 

29 Orolu 73042 96554 76.24 0.95 

30 Osogbo 106386 140631 46.47 0.58 

State Total 2,158,143 2,854,832 7997.54 100 

Source : NPC 1997 

*2001 Population Projection using 2.83percent Growth rate (Federal Office of Statistics,Nigeria, Rate) 

Computation by Macro-statistics Osun State;+Digitalized map of Osun State (RECTAS)

Table 2: Rotated Principal Component Loading 2001 

Variable 

label 


COMPONENT LOADINGS COMMUNALI 

TIES 

C1 C2 C3 C4 

LandV1 -.70 -.06 -.02 -.07 50 

CocaV2 .12 .12 .75 .09 59 

PkV3 -.03 -.09 .58 -.16 37 

ForeV4 -.43 -.07 .09 -.06 21 

CattV5 .48 -.12 .40 -.06 41 

GoatV6 .90 .19 -.09 -.27 92 

PigV7 .77 .27 -.13 -.10 69 

ShepV8 .86 .12 .11 -.32 86 

BirdV9 .89 .29 -.02 -.13 89 

PondV10 .81 .13 -.008 -.02 68 

FishV11 .79 .08 -.006 -.03 63 

WatV12 .29 .04 .07 -.43 28 

BoreV13 -.28 -.34 -.19 .31 35 

ElectV14 .68 .07 -.05 -.10 48 

RoadV15 .59 -.17 .18 .29 50 

TardV16 .36 .49 -.34 -.12 50 

FdaloV17 -.09 -.56 -.44 .48 74 

TexpV18 -.16 -.51 -.38 .54 72 

IgrV19 .05 .02 .48 .19 27 

HfacV20 -.11 .19 -.12 .81 72 

HbedV21 .39 .61 .08 .25 60 

DocV22 .31 .76 .22 .21 77 

NurV23 .38 .79 .14 .17 82 

PostV24 -.19 -.26 -.49 .47 57 

PosagV25 -.06 -.10 .19 .64 45 

PoartV26 -.05 .73 -.29 -.09 63 

TeleV27 .63 .62 .25 .15 88 

CoopV28 .09 .18 .01 .23 10 

BankV29 .24 .51 -.13 .36 46 

HotelV30 .47 .74 .14 .09 79 

PetrolV31 .41 .65 .34 .02 71 

CsemV32 .29 .26 -.39 .31 39 

MaesV33 -.15 .10 .62 -.04 42 

LmemV34 .43 .31 -.06 .13 30 

SmemV35 -.17 .11 .61 -.03 41 

NvregV36 .51 .25 .11 .24 39 

CyregV37 .27 .40 -.02 -.12 25 

PrerV38 .001 .30 .38 .65 65 

SecenV39 .39 .62 .42 .23 77 

PrstV40 -.05 -.56 -.14 .15 35 

SestV41 .07 -.53 -.03 -.06 29 

PodenV42 .91 .16 .05 -.28 94 

UrbV43 .60 .39 .20 -.34 68 

HienrV44 -.05 .52 -.49 -.14 54 

HistafV45 -.13 .75 -.39 -.06 72 

Eigen Value 9.56 7.65 4.22 3.74 

%Total 

Variance 

Cum.% 

Total 

Variance 

21.24 16.99 9.38 8.31 

21.24 38.23 47.61 55.92 

32


Table 3: Distribution of Component Scores by LGA 2001 

LGA C1 C2 C3 C4 

Atakunmosa East -.51 -.69 -.32 1.32 

Atakunmosa West -.85 -.33 .45 -.38 

Ayedaade -1.31 .25 .39 -1.04 

Ayedire -.21 -.0003 -.86 .35 

Boluwaduro .03 -1.06 -.55 1.32 

Boripe .29 .38 -.62 -1.22 

Ede North .82 .30 -.25 -.35 

Ede South -.25 -.64 .47 -.39 

Egbedore -.31 -.69 -.30 .58 

Ejigbo .34 -.46 .41 .53 

Ife Central .80 3.83 -.1.80 -.26 

Ife East .21 -1.02 3.32 -.92 

Ife North -1.13 -.30 .14 -1.45 

Ife south -1.18 -.23 .33 -.17 

Ifedayo -.09 -1.35 -1.19 1.89 

Ifelodun .57 .15 .60 -.62 

Ila .01 .11 -.55 .89 

Ilesa East 1.18 -.35 1.39 .04 

Ilesa West 1.48 1.47 -.76 .46 

Irepodun 1.52 -1.30 -.53 -1.60 

Irewole -.85 .17 .89 -.77 

Isokan -.81 -.13 1.22 -.22 

Iwo -.33 .40 .47 -.96 

Obokun -.65 .38 -1.15 .68 

OdoOtin -.11 -.63 -.41 .36 

OlaOluwa -.77 -.67 .51 .22 

Olorunda 1.48 .88 -1.42 1.49 

Oriade -.72 .54 -.30 .54 

Orolu .76 -1.46 -.19 -1.18 

Osogbo 3.22 .48 -.35 -.46 

33

Table 4 Logistic Regression result 


Logit estimates Number of obs = 30 

LR chi2 (24) = 27.55 

Prob > chi2 = 0.2793 

Log likelihood = -2.289e-07 Pseudo R2 = 1.0000 

Class Odds 

Ratio 

Std.Err Z P >[z] [95% Conf. Interval] 

Forv4 .0963172 . . . . . 

Catv5 1.089897 . . . . 

Goatv6 3.414946 . . . . . 

Pigsv7 1.015813 . . . . . 

Sheepv8 .177941 . . . . . 

Birdv9 1.163514 . . . . . 

Watv12 .3091181 . . . . . 

Borev13 .0423972 . . . . . 

Electv14 1.05895 . . . . . 

Tarv16 .0286953 . . . . . 

Expv18 1.006996 7.540022 0.00 0.999 4.26e-07 2379680 

Igrv19 .8499984 . . . . . 

Partiv26 1.035604 .6125265 0.06 0.953 .324889 3.30105 

Coopv28 .9317405 . . . . . 

Podenv45 .9443884 4.800448 -0.01 0.991 .0000445 20040.92 

Urbv 1.398071 . . . . . 

Fdalov17 .9641473 6.381064 -0.01 0.996 2.24e-06 414660.5 

Prerv37 .8552078 20.81564 -0.01 0.995 1.64e-21 4.47e+20 

Serv39 .6188023 . . . . . 

Prstv41 4.867516 . . . . . 

Sestv43 .5271308 . . . . . 

Hienr 1.008306 .3037317 0.03 0.978 .5587086 1.819699 

Histaf .8672551 . . . . . 

Discap .5756546 . . . . . 

34

OL AOLUWA 

IWO 

Component Scores 

EJIGBO 

AYEDIRE 

IREWOLE 

ISOKAN 

< 0 

0 - 0.99 

1 - 1.99 

> 2 

AYEDAADE 

OR OL U 

EGBEDORE 

OSOGBO 

EDE NORTH 

ED E SOU TH 

IFE NORTH 

N 

IREPODUN 

IFE CEN TR AL 

IFELODUN 

BORIPE 

OLORUNDA OD O OTIN 

IFE EAST 

IFE SOUTH 

5 

BOLUWADU RO 

OB OK UN 

ATAKUMOSA WEST ILESA WEST 

ILA 

ILESA EAST ORIADE 

ATAKUMOSA EAST 

0 

IFEDAYO 

5 Km 

Figure 1 Variations in Levels of Development on Component One Figure 2 Variations in Levels of Development on 

component Two Urban Economic Prosperity) (Higher Education Establishment) 

35 

OLAOLUWA 

IWO 


EJIGB O 

AYEDI RE 

IREWOLE 

ISOKAN 

< 0 

0 - 0.99 

1 - 1.99 

> 2 

AYEDAADE 

OROLU 

EGBEDORE 

OSOGBO 

ED E NORTH 

EDE SOUTH 

IFE NORTH 

N 

IREPODUN 

IFE CEN TR AL 

IFELODUN 

BORIPE 

OLORUNDA ODO OTIN 

IFE EAST 

IFE SOUTH 

5 

BOLU WADURO 

OBOKUN 


ILA 



0 

IFEDAYO 

5 Km

OLAOLUWA 

IWO 


EJIGB O 

AYEDI RE 

IREWOLE 

ISOKAN 

< 0 

0 - 0.99 

1 - 1.99 

> 2 

AYEDAADE 

OROLU 

EGBEDORE 

OSOGBO 

ED E NORTH 

EDE SOUTH 

IFE NORTH 

N 

IREPODUN 

IFE CEN TR AL 

IFELODUN 

BORIPE 


IFE EAST 

IFE SOUTH 

5 

BOLU WADURO 

OBOKUN 


ILA 



0 

IFEDAYO 

5 Km 

36 


Component Score 

Figure 3 Variation in levels of development on Component Three Figure 4 Variation in levels of development on Component Four 

(Agricultural Produce/Small Scale Employment) (Infrastructure) 

< 0 

OLAOLUWA 

IWO 

0 - 0.99 

> 1 

EJIGBO 

AYEDIRE 

IREWOLE 

ISOKAN 

AYEDAADE 

OROL U 

EGBEDORE 

OSOGBO 

EDE NORTH 

EDE SOUTH 

IFE NORTH 

IREPODUN 

IFE CENTRAL 

IFELODUN 

BORIPE 


IFE EAST 

IFE SOUTH 

N 

BOLU WADURO 

OBOKUN 


ILA 



IFEDAYO 

5 0 5 Km

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University Press U.S.A. 

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37


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for action” The World Bank, Washington D.C.. 

38


An Overview of Selected Theories of Adult Learning: 

Implications for Teacher Education in the 21 st Century 

Nigeria 

J. A. Aderinto 

Department of Continuing Education 

Obafemi Awolowo University 

Ile-Ife, Nigeria 

E-mail: aderinto1@yahoo.com 

Phone: (Mobile) 08033262733 

Abstract 

The paper examined some selected theories of adult learning and their 

implications for teacher education in the 21 st century Nigeria. A critical 

examination into the extent to which theories could be used as tools for 

improvement of learning at different educational settings suggests that most 

learning theories are pedagogical educationally oriented with little 

consideration for andragogical aspect of education. The existing theories of 

adult learning were synthesized through literature review to examine the 

differences between the use of pedagogical and andragogical theories of 

learning. Four assumptions about adult learning were identified and found to 

be foundation stones of modern adult learning. 

The study therefore, concluded that if teachers of adult learners are to be 

relevant in the 21 st century Nigeria, they need to be equipped with teaching 

techniques and concepts derived from modern adult learning theories and 

approaches. 

Key Words : Andragogy; Pedagogy; Teaching-techniques; Curriculum; 

Experience, Instructional-methodologies. 

Introduction 

The extent to which theories could be used as tools for the improvement of learning at 

different educational settings has been a subject of debate. Indeed, most learning theories 

have been centered on pedagogical education with little consideration for andragogical 

aspect of education. Instructors, more than often, find it very difficult to apply the 

existing theories to adult learning. 

Dobin and Okun (1973) opined that if a comprehensive theory of learning 

existed, which was applicable to adults, it would be of great utility for both researchers 

and instructors. Teachers of adults will in no doubt be relieved of adoption of learning 

theories which often is pedagogical in facilitating adult learning. As adult teacher, a 

broad and comprehensive learning model would be necessary, and serve as an 

opportunity to formulate a workable rationale for instruction. It is in this view that this 

39


paper sought to examine the implications of some selected existing learning theories for 

teacher education in the 21 st century. 

Learning as a concept 

The significant learning and its meaning dates back to the 19 th century with Ebbinghaus’ 

studies on memory. Since that time, we have witnessed the early works of such famous 

names as William James, John Dewey. Edward Thorndike, Thomas Watson, and Kurt 

Lewin. Other modern psychologists such as B.F. Skinner, Robert Gagne, Jerome Bruner, 

Albert Bandura, Jean Piaget, and Carl Roger, have something to say about learning 

(Aderinto, 1998). 

Kid (1973), endorses results from experience and which through conditioning 

(behaviour) is used to fix desirable habit, or to break undesirable ones. 

However, Cross (1981): Crow and Crow (1963); Tough (1971) and Cross (1981): 

Caffarella (1982); and Edgar, et al (1972), go further to conceptualize learning as 

acquisition and mastery by a person of what is already known on a highly self-directing 

which calls for the education activities to be centered on the learner to allow him (the 

learner), greater freedom to choose what he wants to learn, and how, and where he wants 

to learn it. 

The 19 th and 20 th centuries psychologists had as focus inbuilt learning theories for 

all educational settings in their works that reflects the principles of both pedagogy and 

andragogy. Our observation show that teachers and facilitators of learning more than 

often take for granted these learning theories to be that of pedagogy alone. As a result, 

most instructional methodologies are often based on what Paulo Freire (1972) regarded 

as ‘banking education’ which principles are in contrast to the interest of the adult 

learners. 

The 21 st century poses a challenge to teachers and facilitators of learning in all 

educational settings, especially in the adult education setting. The challenge of making 

these learning theories more relevant to adult learner’s needs and interest. 

Synthesis of existing learning theories for adult education 

Adult education has been the concern of human race for a very long time, but 

with little thought or investigation about adult learning. Evidences show that as early as 

the ancient time, there have been teachers of adults. Knowles (1978), emphasized that 

even though there were evidences of philosophy and invention of techniques for the 

teaching of adults, there was little evidence to show any interest in the processes of adult 

learning by the early propounders of learning theories. The assumptions that adults learn 

the same way as children, often foreclosed any attempt to explore the process of adults 

learning. Hence, the only theoretical framework for all education setting (children and 

adults alike) is pedagogy. The emergence of a growing body of ideas about the 

characteristics of adult learners only came to light according to Knowles (1978), after the 

end of World War 1. To this effect, the evolution of theory abouty adult learning has 

been recent. 

Thorndike (1928), pioneered studies in adult learning which revealed that adults 

have ability to learn, and thus, providing a launching pad for subsequent studies on the 

characteristics of adult as a learner. Further studies of Thorndike (1935), and Sorenson 

(1938), affirmed that adults could learn and even possess interest and abilities that were 

different from those of children. 

This theoretical assertion was further reinforced by Lindeman’s (1926) 

systematic theory about adult learning which clearly conceptualize adult learning as that 

which is situational and not subjects as it is the case of pedagogical learning. 

40


Conventional education demands that the student adjust himself to an established 

curriculum whereas, in adult education, the curriculum is built around the student’s 

needs and interests. 

Lindeman’s theory about adult learning emphasizes experience as living text 

book for adult learners, and on which teachers of adults should build on. Thus, as one of 

the pioneering theorists, the foundation for new way of thinking about adult learning was 

laid. As a result, the following assumptions about adult learning emerged and constituted 

the foundation stones of modern adult learning theory: 

1. Adults’ orientation to learning is life centered 

2. Experience is the richest sources for adult learning 

3. Adults have a deep need to be self-directing 

4. Individual differences among people increase with age. 

Adults are motivated to learn as they experience needs and interests that learning 

will satisfy. Knowles (1970) appears to have taken cue from Linderman’s assumptions 

about learning in his quest for a different learning theory for adult learners. According to 

Knowles, “adult education has not achieved the impact on our civilization which it is 

capable because teachers of adult have only known how to teach adults, as if they were 

children”. The emergence of Knowles’ theory of adult learning (andragogy) came to be 

one of the theories for adult learning in recent times. Andragogy as theory for adult 

learning offers an insight into the needs and interests of adults learners for teachers of 

adults, as it x-rays the nature of adult learners as follow: 

1. Adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to 

learn it. 

2. Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own decisions for their 

own lives. 

3. Adults came into an educational activity with both greater volume and a different 

quality of experience from youths. 

4. Adult become ready to learn those things they need to know and be able to do, in 

order to cope effectively with their real life situations. 

5. Adults are life and tasks centred in their orientation to learning. 

6. Adults are motivated by internal pressure and desire to achieve. (Knowles, 1980). 

All the foregoing assumptions have implications for teacher of adults. They serve 

as appropriate starting point for organizing adult learning activities which gives the 

necessary methodology and approach in the teaching processes of adult learning as life 

situation, experience, self-directing, and a call for mutual inquiry. 

Other learning model that have implications fro adult learning are Skinner’s 

(1938) “Operant model”, Hulls (1943) “Drive reduction; Bebb’s (1949) “Neuro 

Physiological model” which emphasizes experience as power behind adults’ memory to 

recall any educational experience which they have passed through. Bandura’s (1969) 

“Social Leanring”. Brunner’s (1961) “Cognitivism”; and Rogers’ (1969) “Non-directive 

teaching”, each of these theories posit adult learners as active and experienced 

individuals who learn significantly only those things which they perceive as being 

involved in the enhancement and structure of self. Adults according to Elinor (1982) are 

people whose lives are overflowing with commitments, obligations, and burden of one 

sort or another. They learn out of their own free will. 

41


Our observation of these learning theories has been that inspite of some insights given 

into learning and teaching in general, the pedagogical method has been about the only 

approach frequently used to facilitate learning at all levels. This constitutes a challenge 

for teacher education, and a call for a change in techniques and methods of teaching, 

especially for the adult learners. There will in no doubt be a need to embrace new 

methodologies and ideas of humanistic psychologists that will produce a shift from the 

conventional lecture approach to the facilitation of learning based on the assumptions of 

adult learning theories. It is therefore necessary for the 21 st century teachers of adults to 

be provided with new skills and a re-orientation in the teaching techniques, especially in 

adult learning processes. 

Theories of learning will be meaningless unless they are applied to the facilitation 

of learning. Teachers are assigned these functions as postulated by Knowles (1978). 

They are generally responsible for the application of learning theories to the learners and 

in accordance with what those theories regarded as essential in all educational settings. 

In adult education, the connection between teacher and learners is crucial, as it 

affects every stage of learning processes. The role of the adult teacher is diverse, and in 

most cases, the teacher becomes all things in all circumstances for the benefit of adult 

learners. 

Elinor (1982), further gives insight to the qualifications of the teacher of adult 

learners as a person who has knowledge of the subject and ability to communicate it; has 

teaching techniques; and ability to learn from the students and relate teaching to their 

experience. He must have intellectual integrity, and a broad cultural perspective free 

from prejudice. He must also be interested in students as individuals, believe in their 

desire to learn, warm, sympathetic, and have a sense of humour. 

These required qualities of teachers of adults confirm the distinctiveness of adult 

learners from children and youths. As mature people, they must be recognized and 

treated as such, bearing in mind that adult’s teachers are agent of change and bridges that 

connect both learning theories and the application of those theories to make them 

meaningful. No meaningful change can be made if the teacher of adult learners does not 

take into consideration those theories that best suit the learning process of adults. 

Teachers of adults have the task of managing the theories of learning. 

Implications for teacher education in nigeria 

Teachers all over the world are known to be the custodian of knowledge who through 

various techniques, impart that knowledge in learners. As transmitting agents, they 

provide the learner what a given theory regards as essential. Jarvis (1995) portrays 

teachers as anyone who aids another person to learn. Consequently, the teacher of adults 

should equip himself with necessary teaching techniques and concepts derived from 

adult learning theories..Teachers’ eduation in Nigeria has been devoid of andragogical 

concepts of education. Their orientations have been grounded in pedagogical approaches 

to learning activities, hence, their inability to excell in the teaching of adult learners. The 

curriculum and methodologies are basically oriented towards children education. 

The teacher of adults in the 21 st century Nigeria, must understand his/her role and 

conditions of learning as relates to adult education. A situation whereby adult learners 

are taught as if they were children and youths should be reviewed. What happens beyond 

children and youth education should be adequately addressed in the teacher education 

curriculum for the new millennium. The relationship between learning and teaching 

should be put into a proper perspective in teacher education to provide for the expected 

role of the teachers in the application of learning theories. Jervis (1995) proffers: 

42


“both the teachers’ role performance and the teaching methods they employ 

should never be undermined, but always seek to enhance the dignity and the humanity 

for the learners, to do less than this is a misuse of the teachers position, immoral and 

falls below the ideas of education.” 

Teacher education in the 21 st century Nigeria should make provision for 

professional training in methods and techniques of adult teaching, based on the principles 

of adult learning theories. The existing pedagogical method of “I lecture and you listen” 

(didactic) should be de-emphasized and rather, Teachers should embrace the expository 

teaching methods that are relevant to adult learning. 

Evidence shows that despite the increasing interest in the methods of teaching 

adults, and the existing wealth of curriculum and how-to-do-it teaching guides for 

teachers of adult education, most adult education teachers still lack the professional 

training in adult learning (Schuttenberg, E.M. and Tracey, S.J. 1987). The 21 st century 

Nigeria teachers’ education curriculum must expose teachers to variety of literatures on 

the approaches to the teaching of adults. Theories of conditions of learning and 

approaches to teaching should be emphasized in the 21 st century teacher education in 

Nigeria. 

Knowles (1978 and (1980) offers the teachers of adults the necessary knowledge 

and teaching methods about conditions of adult learning. The following table of learning 

conditions of adults and approaches to teaching as adapted from Knowles (1978) and 

1980) could be a significant step in planning teacher education curriculum for the 21 st 

century Nigeria, especially for the facilitators of adult education programmes. 

43


Adults learning conditions and approaches to teaching 

Conditions of adult learning Approaches to teaching 

Learning is a basic human need Teacher exposes students to self-fulfilment, helps 

student clarify his own aspirations for improved 

behaviour, diagnoses the gap between his aspiration 

and present level of performance, helps students 

identify the life problems experience as a result of 

Disharmony between an individual’s experience 

and his perception of the world is a source of 

motivation in learning. 

Adult learners like to participate in the learning 

process. 

44 

the gap. 

Socratic (facilitative) methods is recommended as 

against didactic. 

Mutual structure of learning process, relevant 

structure of learning process, and relevant to 

problem that created felt need to learn. 

Adult are experienced as learners. Using of those experiences as a learning resources 

to build individual meaning system in learning 

Adult learners are self-confident, self-esteem, with 

self-perception. 

situation. 

Reinforcement of all correct knowledge and 

understanding to maintain high level of selfconfidence, 

and self-esteem. Providing 

opportunities for adult learners to reflect upon 

incorrect knowledge for self-correction, and 

encouragement of self-assessment. 

Adult learn best when the self is not under threat. Creation of an ethos devoid of threat, co-operation 

and not competition should be encouraged. 

Adult learners need to feel that they are treated as Teachers should not regard themselves as “the 

adults. 

fountain of all knowledge” but attempt to create and 

facilitate a teaching and learning engagement 

between all participants. 

Adult learners have developed their own learning Recognition of different learning styles that exist 

styles. 

and encouragement of learners to develop effective 

and efficient learning flexibility and adoption of 

relevant teaching styles in teaching and learning 

transaction. 

Adults learners had different educational Encouragement of learning at adult learners’ own 

biographies and may learn at different speeds. pace. 

Adults are intelligent people. Teachers should not be influenced by previous 

academic record especially that from initial 

education. 

Adults bring different physiological conditions to Ensuring that the physical environment in which the 

the learning situation. 

Source: Peter Jarvis, 1995 

teaching and learning occurs is conducive to adult 

learning. 

Conclusion 

This paper has established that volumes of theories about learning have been in 

existence, and the awareness of them is more revealing through the wealth of literature 

that is available. The question that may agitate one’s mind is why are Ngerian teachers 

who have the job of applying those theories to teaching, still falling short of proper 

application of the theories to adult learning? The distinction between learning by adults 

and learning by children is grossly undermined probably due to teaching orientation of 

Nigerian teachers which may not be unconnected with pedagogical principles that 

emphasize children’s learning. 

The 21 st century teacher education in Nigeria, should address the differences 

between the means by which adults and others learn to make up for the imbalances in 

approach to the teaching of those theories about learning. The current awareness for


change in every sector of human development including education in general and in the 

new millennium, is a challenge for teacher education in Nigeria. It calls for a 

reorientation of teachers in theories about learning and teaching methodologies for the 

development of all learners, and specifically, the adult learners. Teacher education 

curriculum in the 21 st century Nigeria, should be reviewed to reflect methods and 

application of adult learning theories in teaching adults. 

References 

[1] Aderinto, J.A. 1998. “ Self-Directed Learning Among Adult Learners in A 

Selected Voluntary Education Agency in Nigeria” Benin Journal of Educational 

Studies 11. (1 & 2). 11-18 

[2] Bebb, D.O. 1949. The Organization of Behaviour. New York: Wiley, Inc. 

[3] Bandura, A. 1969. Principle of Behaviour Modification New York; Holt 

Rinehart and Winston. 

[4] Brunner, J.S. 1961 “The Act of Discovery”. Harvard Educational Review. No. 

31. 

[5] 21-32 

[6] Caffarella, Rosemary S. 1982. “Assisting Students to Become Better Learners 

The Use of A Learning Plan Format”. National Adult Education Conference, San 

Antonio, Texas. 

[7] Cross, K.P. 1981. Adults As Learners. San Francisco: Jossey Bass 

[8] Crow, I.D., and Crow A. (Eds.) 1963. Reading in Human learning. New York, 

Mckay. 

[9] Dubin, Samuel S. and Morries Okun. 1973. “Implication of Learning Theories for 

Adult Institution” Adult Education. . XXIV (1). 3-17 

[10] Elinor, Lenz 1982. The Art of Teaching Adults, New York, Holt, Rine hart and 

Winston. 

[11] Edgar, Faure, Felipe Herrera, Abdul-Razzak Kaddoura, Henri Lopes, Arthur V. 

Petrovsky, Majid Rahnema, and Frederick Champion. 1972 Learning To Be: 

The World of Education Today Tomorrow. Paris, UNESCO. 

[12] Freire, P. 1972. Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Harmondsworth: Penguin. . 

[13] Hull, C.L. 1943. Principles of Behaviour. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts 

Incorporated. 

[14] Jarvis, Peter 1995. Adult and Continuing Education: Theory and Practice. 2 nd 

Edition., NewYork: Biddles Ltd. 

[15] Kid, J.R. 1973. How Adult Learn. New York: Cambridge. 

[16] Lindeman, Eduard C. 1926. The Meaning of Adult Education. New York: New 

Republic. 

[17] Malcom, Knowels. 1970. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy 

Versus Pedagogy. New York: Association Press. 

[18] Malcom, Knowles. 1978. The Adults Learner: A Neglected Species. 2 nd Edition, 

Houston Texas: Gulf Publishing Company. 

[19] Malcom, Knowles. 1980. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From 

Pedagogy to Andragogy. Revised and Updated. Chicago: Follett Publishing 

Company. 

[20] Rogers, C.R. 1969. Freedom to Learn. Columbus: Charles E, Merrill Books. 

[21] Schuttenberg, E.M. & Tracy, S.J. 1987. “The Role of the Adult Educator in 

Fostering Selfdirected Learning” Life-long Learning: An Omnibus of Practice 

and Research. 10(5) 4-6, 9. 

45


[22] Skinner, B.F. 1938. The Behaviour of Organism: An Experimental Analysis. 

New York: Appleton-Century Crofts. 

[23] Sorenson, Herbert. 1938. Adult Abilities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota 

Press. 

[24] Thorndike, Edward L. 1928. Adult Learning. New York: Macmillan. 

[25] Thorndike, Edward L. 1935. Adult Interests. New York: Macmillan. 

[26] Tough, Allen. 1971. The Adult’s Learning Project Toronto: Ontario Institute For 

Studies in Education. 

46


Local Government and Fiscal Stress in Contemporary 

Nigeria: An Examination 

Ayo A. Adesopo 

Department of Public Administration, 

Obafemi Awolowo University, 

Ile-Ife. 

Abstract 

Local government system is known worldwide to be an agent of 

development. It has failed in this wise due to a number of inadequacies. 

This study investigated into the causes of such failures, with particular 

reference to fiscal stress resulting mainly from restricted revenue-raising and 

revenue-sharing powers as well as others classified under socio-political and 

structural problems. The socio-political and structural problems were said to 

be traceable to the nature of intergovernmental fiscal relationship existing 

among the three tiers of government making up the Nigerian Federation. The 

study also identified two major effects of fiscal stress and these are: first, 

limited capacity of the local governments to meet the increasing scope, scale 

and standard of constitutionally assigned roles; and second the autonomy that 

is implicit in the idea of a third tier of government is undermined. It 

therefore made a number of recommendations that would enable the level of 

government achieve and sustain its functional but relative autonomy. 

Local government development profile in nigeria 

Local government has always been of importance in the political terrain of Nigeria. This 

has led to its reformation or restructuring several times in the history of Nigeria. Before 

the 1950s, the colonial government was using indirect rule to administer the grassroots. 

It was through the Native Authorities (NAs) then operating under the District Officer 

(DO) with the Cooperation of Traditional Rulers. Funds were being raised mainly 

through taxation collected by the NAs which retained a part for the maintenance of their 

services. Budgets were prepared then under the guidance of the DO and approved by 

government. Such an arrangement received stiff opposition especially from Southern 

Nigeria in early 1950s. This led to the replacement of native administration with the 

Local Council Ordinance. The western region followed with the Local Council Law of 

1952 while the Northern region passed a corresponding law in 1954. Local Council 

Service Boards (LCSB) were created in Southern parts in 1955 to regulate the powers of 

the local authorities on appointment of employees. In the North, appointments were on 

the approval of the appropriate regional minister of government. In 1960, the laws were 

amended in line with regional experiences and dictates of the time. Ministry of Local 

Council was later created to strengthen inspection of finance and personnel. When the 

military took over power in 1966, local administration system was abolished via Decree 

34, further eroding the autonomy and power of local government councils (Guardian, 

August 7, 2003:9). Of importance to us here was the reduced roles for states and local 

47


governments, especially the taking over of some of the responsibilities of states and local 

governments by the federal government. Examples here include police, prison, judiciary, 

education, forestry, etc taken over; use of indirect methods and other processes which 

were less than democratic; reduced functional roles of traditional rulers, and such others. 

Concretely, the development of local government system was constrained by military 

authoritarian, undemocratic and centralising tendencies (CASS, 2003:21). 

The creation of 12 states in 1967 witnessed another phase of local government 

reforms. Each region instituted its local government system and this leading to diverse 

rather than uniform local government administrative system among the states/regions 

that made up Nigeria then. Local administration then was in the context of the dictates 

of their local circumstance(s). While the eastern and mid-western state governments 

took over the running of local political institutions, the west adopted a North American 

model of local administrative system and in most of the Northern States in existence was 

the system of popular representation with weakened traditional leadership. In addition, 

local governments were being treated essentially as agents of regional and central 

government. That is, the arrangement did not encourage local autonomy. 

There is no gainsaying the fact that the importance of local government in the 

Nigerian political terrain has been renewed since the 1976 reform of local government 

system. The reform has been very embracing. Apart from the fact that the reform 

recognized the tier of government as a distinct level of government with defined 

boundaries, it clearly stated functions and provisions for ensuring adequate human and 

financial resources and at the same time imposed a nation-wide uniform within practical 

limits. That is, local government units were collectively regarded as a separate arm of 

government with “constitutional status, power and financial standing” irrespective of the 

fact that the state governments were to ensure their existence and provide for their 

structure, composition, finance and functions (Bello-Imam and Uga, 2004:453) and 

subsequently enshrined in the 1979, 1989 and 1999 constitutions of the federal republic 

of Nigeria. 

To date, there have been series of major and far-reaching structural and 

organizational changes since that 1976, the existence of the main features of the 1976 

reform till today is not in doubt. Among these changes are the abolition of the state 

ministries of local government in 1988 to enhance the autonomy of local government; 

the introduction of direct disbursement of statutory allocations to local governments; the 

increase of allocation formula from 10% to 15% in 1990 and later mid-1992 increased to 

20%; transfer of Primary Health Care (PHC) programme to local governments in 1990; 

transfer of primary school administration in 1991; extension of presidential system to 

local government (to ensure transparency and accountability) as recommended by Civil 

Service Reorganisation of 1988; consistent increase in the number of local governments 

from 299 in 1976 to 589 in 1991 and 774 in 1996 and till date; and a host of others (see 

Olowu, et al; 1991:20; Ekpo, 1994; Bello-Imam and Uga, ibid:461-462). 

The declining furtunes of local governments in nigeria 

Olowu, et. al. (1991:17) emphatically expressed the view that local governments all over 

the world exist to achieve certain societal values and which must have influenced the 

authors of the Nigerian local government reform, especially that of 1976. The principal 

aim of local government as spelt out by the reform guideline are to: 

(i) provide appropriate services and development activities progressive to local 

wishes and initiatives by devolving or delegating them to local representative 

bodies; 

48


(ii) facilitate democratic self-governance close to the local levels of our society and 

encourage initiative and leadership potential; 

(iii) mobilise human and material resources through the involvement of members of 

the public in local area development; 

(iv) provide a two-way channel of communication between local committees and 

government (both state and federal); and 

(v) spell out specific constitutional functions and responsibilities for planning of 

local governments (Olaniyi, 1999:273). 

(vi) The paradox now is that as important as the local government system is, 

especially in the Nigerian context, it has failed to function (appropriately) by not 

providing and satisfying the basic needs of the grassroots. This disturbing trend 

informed the President Obasanjo’s realisation of the need to review the structure 

of local government system in Nigeria in June 2003. What followed was the 

constitution of a high power eleven-man Presidential Technical Committee on 

local government reform under the chairmanship of Alhaji Umaru Ndayako (the 

Late Etsu of Nupe). The mandate of the committee was to: 

(vii) examine the problem of inefficiency and high cost of governance with a view to 

reducing costs and wastages; 

(viii) review the performance of local governments within the last four years and 

consider the desirability or otherwise of retaining the local government on the 

third tier of government and in that regard to consider, among other options, the 

adoption of a modified version of the pre-1976 local government; 

(ix) examine the high cost of electioneering campaign in the country; and 

(x) consider any matter, which in the opinion of technical committee, are germane to 

the goal of efficient structure of governance in Nigeria. 

The report of the committee was turned in within the stipulated time frame. It is 

unfortunate to note that the report is on the shelve gathering dust like such other earlier 

reports. 

However, the reason for non-performance or gross under performance of the local 

government system in Nigeria has been described by scholars to be multi-dimensional. 

Adedeji (1970) for example blames this on lack of mission or lack of comprehensive 

functional role, lack of proper structure, low quality of staff, and low funding. That was 

the situation then. CASS (2003:21) links their non-performance to centralisation of 

power. Mentioned here are issues like the military intervention in politics and the 

appropriation of major political offices and thereby promoting centralisation; federal take 

over of revenue sources that previously belonged to lower levels of government and in 

effect reducing the latter’s capacity and made them dependent on federal transfers; 

deliberate takeover of functions formerly under the uspices of the two lower 

governments for reasons of national unity/integration; and a host of others. To Bello- 

Imam and Uga (op.cit), a number of factors precipitated the declining fortunes of local 

governments in contemporary Nigeria. First, in their words, is the systematic 

atomisation of the local government system in Nigeria and which has unconsciously led 

to the over-establishment of the level of government and hence turned them into glorified 

parish councils with hardly any means and capacity to deliver the traditional services of 

local governments. Second, the imposition of a uniform structure on all the 774 local 

government units, irrespective of their ability to deliver their constitutionally assigned 

functions within the context also indirectly limits the effectiveness of local governments 

in Nigeria. The third and the most relevant to this work is the external involvement, and 

most times, the usurpation of the activities of the level of government by both the state 

49


and federal governments, limiting their competence, efficiency and effectiveness to a 

great extent. Bello-Imam and Uga went further to spell out the form such external 

interference use to take and these are listed as follows: 

a) Usurpation of the lucrative sources of revenue of local government under the 

pretence of lack of executive capacity to generate the given revenue sources; 

b) Automatic and numerous extra-budgetary deductions from the statutory 

allocation of the local governments within a state by the supervising state 

government; either for reported expenditure on their respective behalf or for yet 

to be executed projects on their behalf; 

c) Imposition of some ad-hoc functions on local governments by both the state and 

federal governments for execution on their respective behalf without 

commensurate finances to execute them. Examples here include funding of 

NOA, NDLEA, NDE, NEPA, INEC, FEAP, NPC, police/community relations 

committee, educational expenses of various types, etc. 

d) Other reported specific deductions are: 

(i) deduction of 15 percent of the local government statutory allocation for the 

local government staff Pension Board; 

(ii) deduction of 5 percent for the payment of Traditional Rulers’ stipend which 

has tot up to 37.5billion naira over the period, apart from purchase of 

limousines by some state governments on behalf of their local governments; 

(iii) deduction of 1 percent of the statutory allocation of local governments for 

the regular training and retraining of career staff of local government; 

(iv) deduction of 1 percent from the monthly statutory allocation of local 

governments as additional administrative charges by the supervising state 

government; 

(v) deduction of N10,000 for support of INEC activities during the last general 

election; 

(vi) payment of overbloated security votes to elected officers, i.e. chairman and 

vice chairman of the local government; and 

(vii) regular and sometimes occasional deduction from the local government 

statutory allocation for support of the state Chief executive and all pertinent 

state officers’ social ceremonies like marriage for either of them or their 

children, burial ceremonies of their parents, house warming ceremonies, 

etc. 

(a) Lack of open tendering and due process in most of the activities of the local 

government occasioned more often than not by political interference; 

(b) The immense expenditure spent on overheads at the grass roots and hence 

only very meagre financial resources are left for development; and 

(c) Pervasive corruption in grassroots governance. Although corruption is not 

unique to local governments, but a general social malaise at all levels of 

government in Nigeria, it is assuming some disturbing proportions at the 

local government level. 

Nigeria’s fiscal structure: a brief overview 

Without mincing words, the poor state of the current local government system can be 

traced to many factors ranging from socio-political, constitutional and fiscal issues. For 

50


the purpose of this work, our concern shall be in the realm of fiscal issue, especially its 

structure. 

To start with, it is pertinent to remind us that there are three intricately and 

mutually dependent levels of administrative hierarchy within the Nigerian federation: the 

federal, state and local government levels. The three tiers of government are 

constitutionally established with areas of power and responsibility assigned to each level. 

As spelt out in the 1999 constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria, power and 

responsibilities are classified into Exclusive legislative list, Concurrent legislative list 

and Residual functions (Section 4 second schedule) between federal and state 

governments. Section 7 fourth schedule of the same constitution also spells out the sole 

functions of a local government council as well as those being performed concurrently or 

in “participation” (as described by Akindele, et. al, 2002:564) with their respective state 

governments. Basically, services which are principally local in character are assigned to 

local government believing that they can be more effectively and efficiently developed 

and administered by local governments. Such functions include construction and 

maintenance of local roads, local water supply and distribution, provision of housing for 

lower income groups, health clinics and a range of environmental and preventive health 

functions, establishment and maintenance of market and motor parks, gathering of vital 

statistics, provision of primary and adult education and libraries, and planning of 

community development functions (Humes, 1970:103; Adejuyigbe, 1972:403). Others 

today are development of agricultural and natural resources, social welfare, sewage and 

refuse disposal, registration of births/deaths/marriage, etc, control and regulation of 

advertisement, pets, small messes, and so on (1999 Constitution). Generally speaking, 

allocation of responsibilities is partly based on the area of coverage of the benefiting 

group and partly the importance of such responsibilities. 

A fundamental issue in intergovernmental fiscal relations in a federal set-up is the 

allocation of government roles and responsibilities on the one hand and granting of 

adequate revenue-raising (taxing) power as well as allocation of adequate resources on 

the other hand to be able to shoulder its alloted responsibilities effectively. This brings 

us to the issues in intergovernmental fiscal relations. According to Ter-Minassian 

(1997), there are four (4) main issues and these are: revenue-raising responsibilities, 

intergovernmental fiscal transfers, spending responsibilities, and administrative aspects 

of fiscal decentralisation. The first two shall be expatiated upon. 

Revenue-raising responsibilities 

Revenue-raising responsibilities, otherwise known as tax assignment/jurisdiction, are 

basically about the level of government that should control what tax. Control in this 

context is seen from the point of view of who legislates about, administer, collect and 

have right to what tax. This provides various levels of government with revenue they can 

control under fiscal arrangement. By this, the tax jurisdiction of each level is defined and 

efficiency is one of the basis. Where the distribution of functions does not rest on and in 

fact does not guarantee adequate and independent revenue base, then the canon of fiscal 

federalism is bastardized and is in jeopardy. Ideally, therefore, tax jurisdiction should 

guarantee the fiscal autonomy of each level of government (Philips, 1971). However, 

efficiency requires that the taxing powers be vested in that level of government most 

likely to administer the taxes at the least cost. For this reason, taxing powers on sources 

which cut across states and which are major sources of revenue are vested in the central 

government, while those sources that cut across local government boundaries within a 

state are vested in the state government. Other criteria that can serve as guide in this 

wise include: progressive and redistribute taxes should be centralised (e.g. personal 

51


income tax and corporate income tax); taxes for economic stabilisation (such as import 

duties) should also be centralised; taxes in mobile factors of production (e.g. gain taxes) 

should be centralised; residence-based taxes (e.g. sales/excise and retail taxes) can be 

decentralised; benefit taxes/user charges are usually assigned to the level of government 

that provides the service (such as toll gate levies, hospital and education fees, motor 

licences, etc); taxes on immobile factors of production such as land and buildings are 

assigned to local governments (e.g. property taxes); and lastly taxes on natural resources 

should be assigned to the central government, for the sake of administrative efficiency 

and uniform practice since the major projects in this field often involve big multinational 

corporations. (Musgrave, 1959; Shah, 1991 and Vincent, 2002:20). This pattern of 

assignment is today a subject of controversy. 

In assigning revenue-raising responsibilities, it is important to distinguish 

between those revenue powers which can be exercised by one level of government and 

the revenue which accrue to that level of government alone (i.e. independent revenue) 

and those exercisable by a level of government, but whose revenues accrue to that level 

of government as well as others. The latter refers to those revenues that are shared among 

the three tiers of government and these make up the federation account. Tables 1 and 2 

are explicit on these. 

The independent revenue sources of the federal government are as listed on Table 

3 (a). The retained revenue of the federal government includes what accrues from the 

independent/internal sources plus the share of federation account, share of VAT 

proceeds, share of AFEM account, share of privatisation proceeds, share of reserve 

account, share of GSM proceeds, custom levies, share of fertilizer subsidy/proceeds, 

PSTF revenue, capital transfers, loan recovery from states, and first charges (e.g. 

JVC/NNPC priority project, National priority project, external debt service fund and 

special fund) (CBN, 2003). The independent/internal revenue sources of states are also 

as stated on Table 3 (b). The retained revenue of the state government include what 

accrues from the independent sources, share of federation account, share of VAT 

proceeds, Receipts from stabilisation fund, and Grant and others (CBN, 2003). 

The independent/internal revenue sources of the local government are also as presented 

on Table 3 (c). The retained revenue of the tier include what accrues from the internal 

sources, share of federation account, share of VAT proceeds, receipt from stabilisation 

fund and general ecology, share of 10 percent of state’s internally generated revenue and 

Grant and Others. 

Intergovernment fiscal transfers 

This is another important issue in intergovernmental fiscal relations. Intergovernmental 

transfers, or simply revenue allocation/distribution among the tiers of government, occur 

at two levels: vertical and horizontal. The sharing among the different tiers of 

government is said to be vertical. The sharing, on the other hand, among thes component 

units of each lower tier of government is said to be horizontal. The former is normally 

based on approved rate (in percentages) while the latter is based on approved principles, 

also expressed in percentages. Several issues have been raised about such transfers 

especially with respect to the acceptable formula for their distribution, adequacy of 

revenue for the tiers of government and over-dependence of the two lower tiers of 

government on such revenue. 

The principles which guide inter-governmental transfers, according to Aigbokhan 

(1999:339), include fiscal imbalance (or fiscal gap); stabilisation objectives; 

redistributive role of the public sector which would sometimes require the central 

government to redress regional disparity; preservation of internal common market, which 

52


may require the federal government to ensure a common minimum level of public 

services, and inter-jurisdictional spillovers which may otherwise lead to under-or over 

provision of public services (see also Awa, 1976:77). This necessitated the establishment 

of a Distributable Pool Account (DPA) (in 1958) and later (in 1979) called Federation 

Account in the history of Nigeria. Its establishment was to have a pool into which some 

portion of federally collected revenue should be paid for subsequent share to the units to 

enable them finance their programmes. Among others, the revenue that are paid into the 

federation account include crude oil/Gas exports, petroleum profit tax, mining rents and 

royalties, domestic crude oil sales, Companies Income tax, Custom and Excise duties, 

Privatisation/GSM proceeds, and so on (CBN, 2003:123). Section 162 of the 1999 

Constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria is emphatic on its sharing. It stated clearly 

that any amount standing to the credit of the federation account shall be distributed 

among the federal and state governments and the local government councils in each state 

on such terms and in such manner as may be prescribed by the National Assembly. 

While the two lower levels of government in Nigeria receive statutory allocation 

from the federal government, the local governments receive from the two higher tiers of 

government. Since June 1992, the vertical sharing has been as follows: 

Federal Government 48.5 percent 

State Government 24.0 percent 

Local Government 20.0 percent 

Special Fund 7.5 percent 

- Federal Capital Territory 1.0 percent 

- Derivation 1.0 percent 

- Development of Oil Mineral 

Producing areas 3.0 percent 

- General Ecology 2.0 percent 

- Statutory Stabilisation 0.5 percent 

(Bello-Imam and Agba, 2004:71-72). 

In addition to its 20 percent share of the federation account, local governments are 

statutorily entitled to 10 percent of States’ internally generated revenue. The only major 

amendment to the formula since that 1992 was the partial implementation of the 13 

percent derivation principle (The Guardian of September 12, 2000:53). The horizontal 

sharing (among the states as well as among local governments) is based on such 

principles as population (30%), equality of states (40%), internal revenue generation 

effort (10%), social development factor (10%) and land mass and terrain (10%) (Bello- 

Imam and Agba, ibid). Pending the approval of an acceptable formula, the following 

indices have been in operation since 1999: 

53


(A) social development factor (10%) 

Local Government State Government 

(i) Primary enrolment 24% of 10% 24% of 10% 

(ii) Hospital beds 30% of 10% 30% of 10% 

(iii) Water Supply Spread 15% of 10% 15% of 10% 

(iv) Rainfall proportion 15% of 10% 15% of 10% 

(v) Direct sec/commercial enrolment - - 8% of 10% 

(vi) Inverse sec/commercial enrolment - - 8% of 10% 

(B) Land Mass/Terrain (10%) 

(i) Land Mass 50% of 10% 50% of 10% 

(ii) Terrain 50% of 10% 50% of 10% 

(C) Internal Revenue Effort (10%) 

(i) Revenue Effort 25% of 10% 25% of 10% 

(ii) Revenue Equality 75% of 10% 75% of 10% 

(A) Equality (40%) Equally Equally 

(B) Population (30%) - Based on population census last conducted. 

(Source: Home Finance Dept.; Federal Ministry of Finance, Abuja). 

Discussing further the issues in inter-governmental transfers, elements like grants-in-aid 

(special allocations), VAT and Education Tax are important transfers outside the 

mainstream of the federation account. Grants-in-aid are given by the federal government 

for two major reasons: political (e.g. to aid the taking off of a state or local government) 

and to reduce the effect of unforeseen occurrences (like flood/rainstorm, draught, pest 

problem, crisis, etc.) that can distort the budget of the unit concerned to the extent that 

other essential services could suffer. With regards to VAT, introduced in 1994, the 

sharing is at 15%, 50% and 35% among the federal, state and local governments 

respectively (Seyi Ojo, 1999:178) (as quoted by Adesopo, et. al., 2004:186). The 

horizontal sharing of VAT proceeds among each lower level of government is on the 

basis of equality (50%), population (30%) and derivation (20%). Lastly, education tax is 

a peculiar (centrally collected) revenue. It is peculiar first because it is specially 

managed by a Board of Trustee and second, it is not directly shared among the tiers of 

government. Despite this, it indirectly benefits the three tiers of government as it is spent 

to develop education at all levels. As an amendment to the disbursement ratio, effective 

from 1998, the disbursement has been among Higher education (50%), secondary 

education (20%) and primary education (30%) irrespective of the tier of government that 

owns the institution. This was initially (in 1993) in ratio 50:10:40 respectively. 

Highlighting sources of fiscal stress at local government level 

With respect to the above listed issues, we shall be concerning ourselves with the sources 

of fiscal stress at the local government level. By the way, fiscal stress is a fiscal situation 

that can be equated to budgetary stringency. It is the next stage to financial insolvency 

and/or fiscal crisis when expenditure is related to revenue. When revenue and 

expenditure run neck to neck, there exists a state of fiscal stress and when this situation is 

not checked what results is a higher level of fiscal dislocation better known as fiscal 

54


crisis. Fiscal stress at the local level can be traced to three (3) broad sources, namely: 

revenue-raising (taxing) responsibilities, revenue-sharing rights and those classified as 

others. 

Local government and revenue-raising (taxing) responsibilities 

Revenue-raising responsibilities, otherwise referred to as tax assignment / jurisdiction, 

are basically about the level of government that should control what tax. Control in this 

context is seen from the point of view of who legislates about, administer, collect and 

have right to what tax. This provides various levels of government with revenue they 

can control under fiscal arrangement. In practice however, limited autonomy is given to 

the lower tiers of government as the major revenue heads fall under the legislative and 

administrative jurisdiction of the federal government while less bouyant sources are 

devoted to the fiscal jurisdiction of state and local governments (Olowononi, 1999:194). 

Detailed table on tax assignment is as presented on tables 1. It is clearly seen that the 

major revenue heads fall under the jurisdiction of the federal government while the less 

important ones fall under the other two lower levels of government. It must also be 

noted that it is not all taxes collectible to any given tier of government that it can spend 

and table 2 is clear on this. The specific taxes assigned to local governments are as 

presented also on Table 3(c). Despite the extensive range of items/subheads, 

insignificant portion of the total current revenue of local governments comes from 

internal sources. Tables 4 and 5 show the current revenue structure as well as 

external/internal sources ratio of local governments respectively. Table 5 shows that out 

of the total revenue that accrued to the seven hundred and seventy four (774) local 

governments between 1996 and 2003, an average of 6.7 percent was sourced internally 

and the remaining 93.3 percent was from external sources (the federal and state 

governments). Of the 93.3 percent, the state contributed 1.4 percent while the bulk sum 

of 91.9 percent was contributed by the federal government. Due to relative 

insignificance of revenue from internal sources, it must be mentioned in passing that a 

clear case of a highly centralised (intergovernmental) fiscal system is established. 

Local government and revenue-sharing rights 

As it has been mentioned elsewhere above, spending responsibilities are assigned to the 

three levels of government as spelt out in the constitution. Allocation or assignment of 

revenue-raising responsibilities as well as spending responsibilities in a federation 

usually gives rise to financial imbalances as the two are often mismatched. This is so 

because it is virtually impossible in a federation to nicely adjust responsibilities to 

financial resources (Anyanwu, 1997:170). The consensus among the scholars of 

intergovernmental fiscal relations and even among the political class is that such 

imbalances must be ameliorated through a variety of transfer (and borrowing) 

mechanisms in order to allow various levels of government perform their constitutionally 

assigned responsibilities. 

The realisation of the need to ameliorate fiscal imbalances through a variety of 

transfer mechanisms has not yielded much especially at the local government level. The 

imbalances are very evident today as can be seen from Federation Account Operation 

(Table 6) and such other transfers from Value Added Tax (VAT) proceeds, Grants and 

Others, and stabilization fund as shown in Table 4 and Table 7 with respect to the local 

governments of the selected states of Southwestern geopolitical zone of Nigeria. The fact 

remains that the federal government exercises too much control over the distribution of 

the federation account. For instance, it determines the sharing ratio and in addition 

deducts other classified expenses from the pool, in the name of “first charges”, before 

55


sharing the rest among the tiers of government and special funds at the rates already state 

above. 

Others sources of fiscal stress 

These can be classified into socio-political and structural sources. By socio-political 

sources, references are being made to issues like pervasive corruption and imposition of 

some (extra-budgetary) ad-hoc functions on local governments by both state and federal 

governments. On the other hand, the state government’s freedom to interfere and make 

automatic and numerous extra-budgetary deductions from the statutory allocation of the 

local governments as occasioned by the nature of intergovernmental fiscal relations is of 

immense. Examples of such imposed ad-hoc functions as well as extra-budgetary 

deductions are as already listed elsewhere in this work. Of importance to this part of the 

work is the aforementioned structural arrangement with respect to fiscal transfers. 

Specifically, this bothers on the supervising state’s right to establish and maintain a State 

Joint Local Government Account into which are paid all allocations to the local 

government councils of the state from the federation account and from the internally 

generated revenue (10%) of the supervising state (section 162 (8) of the 1999 

Constitution). Apart from the fact that this arrangement allows the state to impose 

deductions on the local governments at will, it is often used as political instrument to 

settle scores with local government chairmen either with different political party 

affiliation or when not at peace with the state on one ground or the other. 

Implications of fiscal stress 

From the foregoing, the existing fiscal stress at the local government level in Nigeria is 

traceable to three main sources: inadequate tax-raising power, inadequate revenuesharing 

power as well as socio-political and structural problems with respect to 

intergovernmental fiscal relationship existing among the three tiers of government. 

There are two major effects of these inadequacies. First, the capacity of the local 

governments to play their roles as agents of development is limited, especially finding it 

difficult to meet the increasing scope, scale and standard of services needed in the 

community today (Iniodu, 1999:293). More concretely, it negatively affects the 

economic viability of the third tier of government and in effect not able to perform their 

constitutionally assigned responsibilities. Second, the inability of local governments to 

raise substantial portions of their recurrent revenue requirements from internal sources 

undermines the autonomy that is implicit in the idea of a third tier of government 

(Adamolekun, 1984). This is evident in the current revenue structure of local 

governments as the federal government is relied upon for more than 90 percent of their 

revenue. At macro level, it negates the relevance of local government creation to citizens 

since such a fiscal relationship will not allow for self-determination. Above all, with the 

relationship said to be lacking ‘ethos of justice’ (Adesina, 1998), the struggle for the 

control of federal power and influence among the regional blocs has increased. In 

addition, it has over time led to the emergence of domineering and autocratic federal 

government. Apart from the fact that it influences changes to the revenue allocation 

system, it determines what is actually paid into the federation account, deducts (at 

source) outstanding loans of any unit or such other payments as it deems fit, and more 

often than not delays disbursement to other two levels of government for political or any 

other reason(s). It even withholds funds meant for other levels at will as it was 

experienced when it (federal) withheld 13 percent derivation fund in the early periods of 

the fourth republic and more recently the allocation for local governments in the states 

where additional ones were created. The federal government uses this as a weapon 

56


having realised the fact that no other tier can exist without the monthly statutory 

allocation. 

Recommendations 

The fact remains that, so far local governments are known worldwide to be critical to the 

national development and in recognising this fact the Nigerian constitution guarantees its 

existence, it has become an inevitable and indispensable tier of government within the 

Nigeria’s federal structure. If this level of government must achieve and sustain its 

functional but relative autonomy (Bello-Imam and Uga, op.cit: 465), a number of steps 

must be taken. 

First, the federal government must evolve both the vertical and horizontal 

revenue sharing formula that takes into account the relative constitutional functions of 

local governments as one of the vexed questions is that there has to be correspondence 

between constitutionally alloted functions and fiscal allocation (CASS, 2003:74). The 

federal government must recognise the importance of local government as the grassroots 

development unit that must do everything possible within their jurisdiction to promote 

the welfare of the citizens. 

Second, since the internally generated revenue of local governments comes from 

minor sources, their revenue must continue to be supplemented from federal allocations 

enhance discharge of functions. This does not stop local governments from working 

towards a situation whereby they will be alert to their internally generated revenue 

responsibility to reduce the extent of their dependence on federal government (Iniodu, 

1999:311). This can be done by mobilising available local resources to broaden the 

revenue base of the local government. In the alternative, the federal government can 

liberalise tax issues either by reassigning tax powers or by granting resource control 

rights. 

Third, the maintenance of State Joint Local Government Account (SJLGA) by 

the state must be discontinued and constitution be amended accordingly. The unhindered 

access of state government to the accounts of local governments under its jurisdiction has 

its aforementioned attendant problems. After abolishing the SJLGA, monthly statutory 

allocation to local governments can be done through the Central Bank nearest to them 

(Bello-Imam and Uga, op.cit). This arrangement will guarantee the local governments 

the deserved autonomy. The state government will be brought in to assume its 

supervisory role only to ensure fiscal prudence. Particularly, the auditing procedure may 

be strengthened and the office of Auditor-General for local governments be 

constitutionally guaranteed. An independent body can even be instituted to complement 

the roles of Auditor-General for local governments to monitor and evaluate the 

expenditure vis-à-vis revenue of local governments and report accordingly. Institutions 

such as Economic and Development Planning Commission, Economic Advisory 

Council, Economic Intelligence Committee, etc that are already in place must be 

empowered, encouraged and protected and more importantly made relevant in this 

respect (Iniodu, ibid). In addition, the government may need to re-orientate the thinking 

of the citizens towards disciplined and responsible behaviour and conduct, which will in 

a way reduce corruption at the local government level. 

Fourth, the State House of Assembly must monitor and enforce the distribution of 10% 

of the supervising state’s internally generated revenue to local governments in the state. 

Records have shown that many states in the federation have not been complying with 

this constitutional provision. 

It is also hereby suggested that the National Task Force on local government 

revenue mobilization be created. This is necessary if only to be self-reliant, as one of the 

57


requirements for local government creation is the capacity to generate internal revenue in 

addition to population density, geographical contiguity and community affinity. This 

Task Force will assist in gearing up the local governments and developing many of the 

assigned tax sources (like tenement rate) already neglected due to their ultimate reliance 

on monthly statutory allocation. 

Local governments are agents of development and this should be the focus of their 

activities. Both the federal and state governments must then stop allocating ad-hoc 

functions and responsibilities to local governments, especially without adequate financial 

backing. To further enhance the capacities of local governments to function as agents of 

development, the Community Development Associations (CDAs) and other popular 

grassroots organisations have to be integrated into their structures and processes (CASS, 

2003). 

Lastly, there is need to revisit the VAT proceeds sharing ratio by raising the 

relative share local governments as this will further reduce fiscal stress being undergone. 

This is necessary because what gets to the individual local government from this source 

is very minute despite its sharing at ratio 15:50:35 among the federal, state and local 

governments respectively. 

References 

[1] Adamolekun, L. (1984) “The idea of local government as a third tier of 

government revisited: Achievements, Problems and Prospects” in Quarterly 

Journal of Administration Vol. xviii Nos 3 & 4 pp. 113-138. 

[2] Adedeji, Adebayo (1970) Local Government Finance in Nigeria: Problems and 

Prospects. Adedeji and Rowland (eds) Ile-Ife: University of Ife press pp. 1-19. 

[3] Adejuyigbe, Omolade (1972) “Re-organisation of local government councils in 

Western Nigeria” in Quarterly Journal of Administration Vol. 6 No 4 (July) 

pp. 401-416. 

[4] Adesina, O. C. (1998) “Revenue Allocation commissions and the contradictions 

in Nigeria’s federalism” in Kunle Amuwo, et. al (eds) Federalism and Political 

Restructuring in Nigeria. pp. 232-246. 

[5] Adesopo, A. A. and Asaju, A. S. (2004) “Natural resource Distribution, Agitation 

for resource Control right and the practice of Federalism in Nigeria” in Journal of 

Human Ecology. India, Delhi: KRE Publishers pp. 

[6] Adesopo, A. A.; Agboola, A. A. and Akinlo, O. O. (2004) “Centralisation of 

intergovernmental fiscal power and the lower levels of government in a 

federation: The Nigerian Experience” in Journal of Social Sciences Vol. 8 No. 3 

(May) India, Delhi: KRE Publishers pp. 179-195. 

[7] Aigbokhan, Ben E. (1999) “Fiscal federalism and economic growth in Nigeria” in 

Fiscal Federalism and Nigeria’s Economic Development. Proceedings of the 

1999 NES Annual Conference pp. 333-352. 

[8] Akindele, S. T.; Olaopa, O. R. and Obiyan, A. Sat (2002) “Fiscal Federalism and 

local government finance in Nigeria: An examination of revenue rights and fiscal 

jurisdiction” in International Review of Administrative Sciences. SAGE 

Publications. Vol. 68 No 4 pp. 557-577. 

[9] Anyanwu, J. C. (1997) Nigerian Public Finance First edition, Onitsha: Joanne 

Educational Publishers Limited. 

[10] Awa, E. O. (1976) Issues in Federalism. Nigeria; Benin: Ethiope Publishing 

House. 

[11] Bello-Imam, I. B. and Uga, O. Edu (2004) “Nigerian Local Government as a 

third tier of government: Myth or reality” in Bello-Imam and Obadan (eds) 

58


Democratic Governance and Development Management in Nigeria’s Fourth 

Republic 1999-2003. Ibadan: CLGARDS pp. 453-468. 

[12] Central Bank of Nigeria (1996) Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the 

year ended 31 st December. 

[13] __________________ (1997) Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the 














[20] Centre for Advanced Social Sciences (2003) “Governance and Politics at the 

local level” in The Guardian. Tuesday, September 23, p. 21 and Thursday, 

September 25. 

[21] Ekpo, A. (1994) “Fiscal federalism: Nigeria’s post independence experience, 

1960-1990”, World Development Vol. 22 No. 8. 

[22] Humes, Samuel (1970) “Local Government” in Quarterly Journal of 

Administration Vol. 5 No. 1 (October) pp. 91-110. 

[23] Iniodu, P. U. (1999) “Fiscal dependence of local governments in Nigeria’s fiscal 

system: The case of Akwa-Ibom State” in Fiscal federalism and Nigeria’s 

Economic Development. Proceedings of the 1999 NES Annual Conference pp. 

289-311. 

[24] Musgrave, R.A. (1959) The Theory of Public Finance. New York: McGraw-Hill. 

[25] Nigeria, Federal Republic of (1999) The Constitution of the Federal Republic of 

Nigeria, Lagos: Federal Government Press. 

[26] Ojo, Seyi (1999) Elements of Tax Management and Practice in Nigeria Lagos: 

Bola Prints. 

[27] Olaniyi, O. (1999) “Fiscal federalism and the performance of local governments 

in Nigeria’s economic development: An impact Analysis” in Fiscal federalism 

and Nigeria’s economic development. Proceedings of the 1999 NES Annual 

Conference pp. 271-287. 

[28] Olowononi, G. D. (1999) “ Federalism and vertical intergovernmental financial 

imbalance in Nigeria” in Fiscal federalism and Nigeria’s economic development. 

Proceedings of the 1999 NES Annual Conference pp. 189-213. 

[29] Olowu, Dele; Ayo, S. B. and Akande, Bola (eds) (1991) Local Institutions and 

National Development in Nigeria. Ile-Ife: Research Group in Local Institutions 

in Collaboration with OAU Press. 

[30] Philips, A.O.(1971) “Nigeria’s Federal Financial Experience” in The Journal of 

Modern African Studies. Vol.9 No 3. 

[31] Shah, Anwar (1991) The New Fiscal Federalism in Brazil Discussion Papers No 

124. The World Bank. 

59


[32] Ter-Minassian, T. (1997) “Intergovernmental fiscal relations in a Macroeconomic 

prospective: An Overview” in T. Ter-Minassian (ed.) Fiscal federalism in theory 

and practice Washington D. C.: International Monetary Fund (IMF). 

[33] The Guardian, Thursday, August 7, 2003 pp. 8 & 9. 

[34] The Guardian September 12, 2000. 

[35] Vincent, O. Ola (2002) “Fiscal Federalism: Nigerian Experience” in Nigerian 

Tribune No. 12777 (Tuesday, January 29) p. 20. 

60


Appendices 

Table 1: Tax Jurisdiction in Nigeria 

Federal State Local 

1. Import 

1. Football, pools and other 1. Rates 

2. Excise duties 

betting taxes 

3. Export duties 

2. Entertainment taxes and 2. Tenement rate 

4. Mining rents and 

estate duties 

5. royalties 3. Gift tax 

3. Marketing and trading 

6. Petroleum profits tax 4. Land tax other than on 

licences and fees 

7. Companies income tax 

agricultural land 4. Motor park duties 

8. Capital gains tax (legal 5. Land registration fees 

5. Advertisement fees 

basis) 

6. Capital gains tax 

6. Entertainment tax 

9. Personal income tax 7. (administration) 

7. Radio/television licences 

(legal basis) 

Personal income tax 

Value added tax (VAT) 8. (administration) 

Stamp duties 

Source: Nigerian Constitutions, Report of the Presidential commission on Revenue Allocation, 

1980 and VAT Decree of1993 (and subsequent amendment in 1996). (Quoted by Anyanwu, 

1997:166). 

61


Table 2: Nigeria's Major Tax Jurisdictions and Right to Revenue 

Types of Tax 

Jurisdiction Right to Revenue 

Law Administration 

and Collection 

1. Import duties Federal Federal Federation account 

2. Excise duties Federal Federal Federation account 

3. Export duties* Federal Federal Federation account 

4. Mining rents and royalties Federal Federal Federation account 

5. Petroleum profit tax Federal Federal Federation account 

6. Companies income tax Federal Federal Federation account 

7. Capital gains tax Federal Federal/States States 

8. Personal income tax (other than 

those listed in 9) 

Federal States States 

9. Personal income tax: armed forces, 

external affairs officers, residents 

of the Federal Capital Territory and 

Nigerian Police Force 

Federal Federal Federal 

10. Licences fees on television and Federal 

wireless radio 

Local Local 

11. Stamp duties Federal Federal/States States 

12. Capital transfer tax (CTT) Federal States States 

13. Value added tax Federal Federal/States Federal/States/Local 

14. Pools betting and other betting State 

taxes 

States States 

15. Motor vehicle and drivers licences State States States 

16. Entertainment tax State States States 

17. Land registration and survey fees State States States/Local 

18. Property taxes and rating State Local Local 

19. Market and trading licence and State 

fees 

Local Local 

Note: The peculiar status of the Federal Capital Territory has not been taken into 

considerationin this table. 

Source: Adapted from Anyanwu (1997) p.167. 

62


Table 3(a): Independent/Internal Revenue of the Federal Government 

1. PAYE tax of the armed forces, external affairs officers, residents of FCT and the Nigerian 

police force. 

2. Licensing fees (e.g. issuance of license for arms and ammunitions, gold dealers, etc). 

3. Rent on government properties. 

4. Earnings and sales (e.g. sale of stores, auction sales, stamps, dividend from investments 

etc). 

5. Withholding tax on corporate bodies. 

6. Capital gains tax (FCT residents and corporate bodies). 

7. Stamp duties involving a corporate entity. 

8. Etc. 

Source: Joint Tax Board (1997). 

Table 3(b): Independent/Internal Revenue of the State Government 

1. PAYE tax of residents of the state. 

2. The withholding tax (individual only). 

3. Capital gain tax (of individuals within the state) 

4. Stamp duties (instruments executed by individuals) 

5. Road taxes 

6. Pool betting and lotteries, gaming and casino taxes 

7. Business premises registration and renewal levy 

8. Development levy (individuals only and not more than N100 per annum on each 

taxable individual) 

9. Street naming registration fee (in state capitals) 

10. Right of occupancy fees (in state capitals) 

11. Market fees (where state finances are involved) 

12. Etc 

Source: Joint Tax Board (1997). 

63


Table 3(c): Taxes and Levies to be Collected by Local Governments 

1. Shops and kioks rate. 

2. Tenement rates. 

3. On and off liquor license fees. 

4. Slaughter slab fees. 

5. Marriage, birth and death registration fees. 

6. Naming of street registration fee, excluding any street in the state capital. 

7. Right of occupancy fees on lands in rural areas, excluding those collectable by the 

federal and state governments. 

8. Market taxes and levies, excluding any market where state finance is involved. 

9. Motor park levies. 

10. Domestic animal license fees. 

11. Bicycle, truck, canoe, wheelbarrow and cart fees, other than a mechanically propelled 

truck. 

12. Cattle tax payable by cattle farmers only. 

13. Merriment and road closure levy. 

14. Radio and television license fees (other than radio and television transmitter). 

15. Vehicle radio licence fees (to be imposed by the local government of the state in which 

the car is registered). 

16. Wrong parking charges. 

17. Public convenience, sewage and refuse disposal fees. 

18. Customary burial ground permit fees. 

19. Religious places establishment permit fees. 

20. Signboard and advertisement permit fees 

Source: Taxes and Levies (Approved List for Collection) Decree 1998, No. 21. 

64


TABLE 4: CURRENT REVENUE STRUCTURE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS 

Year Total Federation Account State VAT % Internal Grants Stabilization Fund 

Revenue 

% 

Allocation % 

Revenue % Others % 

% 

1996 23,942.1 16,569.7 69.2 691.1 2.9 4,581.7 19.1 2,027.1 8.5 72.5 0.3 - - 

1997 33,040.5 22,300.5 67.5 578.9 1.8 7,515.0 22.7 2,506.9 7.6 139.2 0.4 - - 

1998 44,952.7 30,199.3 67.2 1,097.8 2.4 9,187.3 20.4 4,448.6 9.9 19.7 0.0 - - 

1999 60,800.6 43,870.3 72.2 419.8 0.7 9,559.8 15.7 4,683.8 7.7 1,210.6 2.0 1,056.3 1.7 

2000 151,877.3 118,589.4 78.1 1,923.1 1.3 13,908.7 9.2 7,152.9 4.7 4,904.7 3.2 5,398.5 3.5 

2001 171,523.1 128,500.5 74.9 1,598.6 0.9 20,102.7 11.7 6,020.4 3.5 2,320.7 1.4 12,980.2 7.6 

2002 172,151.2 128,896.7 74.7 1,672.3 0.9 18,727.2 10.9 10,420.9 6.1 2,537.1 1.5 9,897.0 5.7 

2003* 370,170.9 291,406.9 78.7 2,119.8 0.6 39,648.4 10.7 20,175.5 5.5 12,210.0 3.3 4,610.3 1.2 

Source: CBN Annual Survey of Local Government Councils and Federation Accounts 

(As cited by CBN Annual Reports and Statements of Accounts for the year ended 31 st December – various years). 

Foot Note 

(1) * means provisional. 

(2) Percentages are as calculated by the researcher. 

(3) Information for 1999 covers 651 local governments. 





(8) The federal sources include federation account, VAT proceeds, Grants and Others and Stabilization Fund. 

65


TABLE 5: LOCAL GOVERNMENT REVENUE SOURCE: 

EXTERNAL/INTERNAL SOURCES RATIO (%) 

Year Total Revenue Federal Sources 

(%) 

66 

State Sources 

(%) 

Internal Sources 

(%) 

1996 23,942.1 88.6 2.9 8.5 

1997 33,040.5 90.6 1.8 7.6 

1998 44,952.7 87.7 2.4 9.9 

1999 60,800.6 91.6 0.7 7.7 

2000 151,877.3 94.0 1.3 4.7 

2001 171,523.1 95.6 0.9 3.5 

2002 172,151.2 93.0 0.9 6.1 

2003* 370,170.9 93.9 0.6 5.5 

Source: Extracted and calculated from Table 4 

Foot Note 


(2) The federal source include the share of federation account, VAT, stabilization 

fund receipt and Grants and others unclassified.


ISSN 1450-2267 Vol 2, No 1 (2006) 

© EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2006 


TABLE 6: FEDERATION ACCOUNT OPERATION (1996-2003) (N Million) 

YEAR TOTAL FEDERAL STATE % LOCAL % SPECIAL FUND % 

REVENUE % 

1996 167,166.1 81,730.0 48.9 41,716.7 24.9 33,918.0 20.3 9,810.4 5.9 

1997 206,622.0 101,000.0 48.9 51,160.7 24.8 41,690.8 20.2 12,770.5 6.1 

1998 244,289.0 124,573.0 51.0 57,500.0 23.5 47,910.0 19.6 14,306.0 5.9 

1999 446,474.7 218,874.5 49.0 108,214.8 24.2 90,179.2 20.2 29,206.2 6.5 

2000 1,051,643.9 502,294.4 47.8 248,561.7 23.6 207,146.6 19.7 93,641.2 8.9 

2001 1,298,301.3 530,657.6 40.9 391,326.9 30.1 245,436.6 18.9 130,880.2 10.1 

2002 1,692,770.8 859,014.9 50.7 398,767.6 23.6 333,900.6 19.7 101,087.7 6.0 

2003* 1,821,010.0 917,104.4 50.4 419,845.2 23.1 346,865.9 19.0 137,194.5 7.5 

Source: Federal Ministry of Finance 

(cited in CBN Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the year ended 31 st December – various years) 

Foot Note 


(2) Special funds cover FCT, Ecology, Statutory stabilization, mineral derivation (13%), mineral 

producing areas, Natural resources and Residual Account. 

(3) Special funds are under the control of the federal government. 

(4) The percentages are as calculated by the researcher. 

(5) Before the 2001 Supreme Court Judgement, Mineral derivation was an item under “special 

funds”, it is now an item of distribution directly from the Federation Account. 

(6) Federation Account items include what accrue from Crude oil/Gas exports, PPT and Royalties, 

etc; Domestic Crude oil sales; other oil Revenues, Companies Income tax; Customs/Excise 

duties; Privatization/GSM proceeds; VAT, Tax on petroleum products, Penalty for gas flare, etc. 

67


ISSN 1450-2267 Vol 2, No 1 (2006) 



TABLE 7: CURRENT REVENUE STRUCTURE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN THE SELECTED SOUTHWESTERN STATES 

(N Million) 

OYO OSUN EKITI 

Total 

Rev. 

Fed. A/C Stabili- 

Zation 

Fund 

State 

Alloc- 

ation 

VAT Internal 

Rev. 

Grants 

& 

Others 

Total 

Rev. 

Fed. A/C State 

Allocation 

68 

Stabili- 

Zation 

Fund 

VAT Internal 

Rev. 

Grants 

& 

Others 

Total 

Rev. 

Fed. 

A/C 

State 

Alloc- 

Ation 

Stabilization 

Fund 

VAT Internal 

Rev. 

1996 595.5 505.5 - - 32.3 57.7 - 561.3 418.8 0.3 - 121.6 19.9 0.7 312.0 261.9 0.7 - 34.3 15.1 - 

1997 1,129.7 704.3 - - 362.5 62.9 - 889.0 620.4 - - 239.3 28.0 1.3 567.5 399.1 0.7 - 138.6 22.6 6.5 

1998* 1,115.8 829.0 - - 231.8 55.0 - 1,268.5 939.1 0.6 - 293.8 35.0 - 775.8 557.1 - - 181.6 37.1 - 

1999* 1,665.6 1,028.4 - - 554.1 69.6 13.5 855.4 549.2 - - 227.7 58.8 19.7 580.8 364.6 1.2 - 134.1 29.9 51.0 

2000* 1,898.8 1,332.9 177.7 - 299.6 88.6 - 3,367.4 2,857.8 - 37.9 327.4 39.4 104.9 1,742.9 1,427.2 - 131.7 147.0 26.3 10.8 

2001* 4,848.3 4,373.3 62.9 - 840.8 207.8 204.3 1,763.1 1,282.2 - 216.8 344.9 122.6 141.5 1,395.8 1,102.1 - 225.1 194.0 22.3 46.3 

2002* 5,205.2 3,568.7 916.3 - 461.8 159.5 98.8 4,390.0 3,267.0 106.8 261.0 562.5 95.9 96.8 3,527.5 2,530.7 - 313.6 637.5 43.3 2.4 

2003* 12,309.6 10,672.6 49.6 - 1,355.0 166.2 66.2 12,122.2 10,735.7 22.9 14.5 1,238.1 62.9 48.0 7,047.1 5,110.6 - 17.9 610.9 1,283.5 24.1 

Source: CBN Annual Survey of Local Government Councils and Federation Accounts 

(cited in CBN Annual Report and Statement of Accounts for the year ended 31 st December-various years) 

Foot Note 


Grants 

& 

Other 

s


ISSN 1450-2267 Vol 2, No 1 (2006) 



Some Reflections on the Reception of Party Autonomy and the 

Freedom to Contract in South African Law 

Prof Riana Van Der Bank 

Acting Dean: Human Sciences, LL D 

Private BagX021 

Vanderbijlpark, 1900 

South Africa 

riana@vut.ac.za 

Abstract 

Party autonomy is the right of parties to a contract to freely agree upon not only the terms 

and conditions of their contract but to also determine the law that will apply to it. This is 

known as the choice of law which is also known as the ‘proper law’ or the ‘applicable law’ 

of the contract. 

This choice of law in the opinion of the author is a manifestation of the right to the freedom 

of trade in terms of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. 

While the freedom to determine the choice of law that will govern their contract is 

entrenched, like the other rights the parties’ right to autonomy may also be limited in terms 

of law of general application. 

Jurisprudence on party autonomy in South Africa law appears not to be well developed. 

This paper therefore seeks to explore the concept of party autonomy with reference to the 

establishment of principles recognized both in foreign domestic systems of law and in 

international instruments. These principles include the choice of ‘choice of law’, its 

application, substitution and scission. 

Introduction 

Party autonomy is premised on the notion that the parties to a contract are entitled not only to create 

rights and obligations between themselves but also that they are free to choose the law applicable to 

their contract. In other words, the parties to a contract are free to determine the law governing their 

contract. This choice of law by the parties to govern their contract is referred to as the ‘proper law’ or 

the ‘applicable law’ i.e. the lex causae or the lex voluntatis of the contract. The former is generally 

used by academic writers on conflict rules in English and Commonwealth contract law (Edwards, 

1989: 329) and the latter by the drafters of international instruments. 

According to the classical conception of private international law (a tradition which spans some 

five centuries in Western legal development from Bartolus to Von Savigny) choice-of-law rules 

contain a necessary connecting factor. Connecting factors which feature prominently in the category of 

contractual obligations include: the domicile of the parties, the place of incorporation, the intention of 

the parties, the flag of a ship, the place of making or performance of a contract and the situs or situation 

of property. Where the parties have not made a choice of law applicable to their contract, then the law 

69


with which the contract has the closest connection is the otherwise applicable law. The otherwise 

applicable law is generally determined by the courts and arbitration tribunals. In other words, choiceof-law 

rule lack material content and they serve merely as justification for the courts of the South 

African forum when they have to apply either South African substantive law or the principles of a 

foreign legal system, as the case may be. 

The concept of party autonomy has been favoured by academic writers even to the point 

reverence (Forsythe, 1990: 295) and developed by judicial decisions for the reason that it promotes 

certainty and predictability in contractual relations (Plender 1999: 87). There are other reasons too for 

the recognition of the notion of party autonomy. These may include the protection of justified 

expectations of the parties; the choice of a ‘neutral law’, though foreign to the parties, is nevertheless 

well developed in the particular field of business and is of wide application (Forsythe, 1990: 298). 

Accordingly, party autonomy is an important principle embodied in the contract conflicts rules of 

private international law of all modern legal systems (Plender, 2002:87). 

Historical background 

In the early decisions of the English courts affecting contracts the tendency was to apply the lex loci 

contractus to each and every case regardless of the contractual issue involved. 

The concept of party autonomy appears not to be widely developed in South African 

jurisprudence and consequently much reliance has been placed on other legal systems, particularly 

English law in its application (Edwards, 2000: 298). 

Numerous reported decisions in the South African rechtskringen attest to the search, from 

roughly 1840 onwards, by the courts for the appropriate law to govern contractual matters involving a 

foreign element. In Livingston Syers & Co v Dickson, Burnie & Co (1841 2 Menz 239) one finds the 

Cape Supreme Court, when dealing with a foreign bill of exchange, noting that the lex loci contractus 

“is not absolute and universally peremptory rule, but applies only in those cases intended that their 

contract should be ascertain and regulated by the law; and ceases to apply in any case in which the 

circumstances are such as to afford stronger grounds for presuming that the parties intended their 

contract to be ascertained and regulated by some other law, as for example the lex loci solutionis. 

It was in the leading case of Standard Bank of S A Ltd v Efroiken and Newman (1924 AD 171) 

that the thinking behind the English concept of the proper law may fairly be regarded as having been 

received into South African private international law and is regarded as the seminal decision in South 

African jurisprudence relating to party autonomy. In this case the court held that in the absence of an 

express choice of law for their contract, the presumed intention of the parties should play a role in 

ascertaining the proper law of their contract. But that also must not be taken too literally, for, where 

parties did not give the matter a thought, courts of law of necessity to fall back upon what ought, 

reading the contract by the light of the subject-matter and of the surrounding circumstances, to be 

presumed to have been the intention of the parties. 

This decision was subsequently elaborated on in Guggenheim v Rosenbaum (1961 4SA 21 (W) 

31A) where the Court held that the proper law of the parties’ contract is the law of the country which 

the parties have agreed or intended or are presumed to have intended shall govern it. (Edwards, 1990: 

298). From this decision, it may be suggested that the proper law is determined by an express choice of 

law by the parties or by an implied or tacit choice of law by the parties or in the absence of that, the 

choice of law may be imputed to the parties. 

Party autonomy, which is predicated on the philosophical premise of individual autonomy, 

would continue to play an important role in international commercial contracts. For that reason it 

would be necessary to examine those principles, which have evolved from judicial decisions and 

academic writings regarding its application. 

70

International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Volume 2, Number I (2006) 

The way ahead: the continuing search for a flexible choice-of-law rule 

Having decided that no single proper law (no matter how broadly based)can solve every potential point 

of dispute between the parties, a few comments seem necessary on the utility of the proper law doctrine 

especially in those cases where the parties have failed to select the law govern their contract. It has 

been said , and not without reason, that one of the major defects of the proper law doctrine, given the 

absence of a choice of law, is that the lack of specificity in the now accepted “closest connection” test 

may require a House of Lords decision to determine what law governs the disputed contract. 

Principles of party autonomy 

(a) Choice of the Proper Law 

As stated above, the choice of law may be express or tacit i.e. implied. An express agreement may be 

oral or written, usually in the form of a choice-of-law clause in a contract. In the case of an implied or 

tacit choice of law, this may be inferred from the terms of the contract (Wolfe, 2002: 427) and the 

circumstances surrounding the conclusion of the contract (Edwards 1989: 362). In certain commercial 

contracts several indicia may establish an inferred or implied choice of law such as for example a 

jurisdiction or arbitration clause from which a strong inference may be drawn that the domestic law of 

the chosen forum or arbitrator should apply as the proper law of the contract. Other examples of indicia 

are the form of the document used, the use of business jargon or concepts peculiar to the business 

activity, a choice-of-law clause in previous dealings even a reference to the rules of a particular legal 

system (Collier 1998:187). It may even be inferred from the choice of law applicable to a particular 

aspect of the contract that the same legal system applied to the whole contract. (Wolfe, 2002: 427). 

Whether the choice of law is an express one or an implied one, the intention of the parties as to their 

choice is determinative (Wolfe, 2002: 418). 

(b) Application of the Proper Law 

Once the proper law of the contract has been determined either by an express choice or an inferred one, 

and then the contract is governed by all the provisions of the legal system to which the proper law 

belongs (Wolfe, 2002: 416). The proper law of the contract governs most of the contractual issues such 

as the nature, effect and interpretation of the contract, the ascertainment and extent as well as the 

discharge of the parties’ obligations, essential validity, and mode of performance and the nonenforceability 

of the contract by reason of illegality (Edwards, 1990: 360). However, contractual issues 

such as legality, formal validity and contractual capacity are governed by the otherwise applicable law 

as determined by a court of law or arbitral tribunal (Edwards, 1990:360). 

Where there are changes in the law after the parties had agreed on their choice of law, the 

contract is subject to such changes in the application of the common law. But, in the case of statutory 

rules that the parties have agreed shall apply to their contract, the interpretation and application of the 

rules will be as they were at the time of the agreement (Wolfe, 2002: 423). 

(c) Substitution of a previously chosen law 

Another principle of party autonomy is that the parties may substitute a new legal system for the one 

previously chosen provided that the new choice is bona fide and legal. The validity of the new choice 

of law is determined by the application of the previously chosen law (Plendar, 2002: 98). 

(d) Depecage or Scission of the Contract 

Depecage or picking and choosing of a contract is a principle of party autonomy whereby the parties to 

a contract may divide a contract into several separate issues and agree that they may be governed by 

71


different systems of law and not by just a single proper law (Wolfe, 2002: 404). In this sense depecage 

is indeed a logical manifestation of the principle of party autonomy. Like the choice of the proper law 

by the parties, such severability of the contract must be expressed or demonstrated with reasonable 

certainty. Thus for example, in a contract of sale the parties may agree that the law of the place of 

performance will govern the performance of their obligations. Similarly, the law of the place where 

payment is to be made will govern the currency in which payment will be made. The qualified 

application of this principle is recognized in the Rome Convention of 1980. Within the South African 

context the law relating to depecage, however, does not appear to be unequivocal (Edwards, 1990: 

361). 

(e) Limitations on Party Autonomy 

The question that arises is whether limitations can be imposed on the extent of the parties’ freedom in 

choosing a law to govern their contract. 

Once the parties have chosen a law to govern their contract, they are bound by all the 

provisions of that legal system. All legal systems consist of provisions that are either compulsory i.e. 

imperative or prohibitory (the ius cogens) or optional (the ius dispositivum) i.e. provisions of the 

otherwise applicable legal system which the parties may avoid by a choice of law. Where optional rules 

of a legal system are concerned the parties are free to deal with the operation of them in their contract. 

Thus for example, the parties to a contract of sale may exclude the warranty against latent defects or 

even make its application more stringent. And this is generally the case in the law of contracts 

(Forsythe, 1989:299). 

However, with regard to whether the parties by their choice of law could avoid a ius cogens i.e. 

a mandatory provision of an otherwise applicable law, Wolfe is of the opinion that they cannot (Wolfe, 

2002 416). The English case of Vita Food Products v Unus Shipping Co where the Court per Lord 

Wright held that the parties to a contract are free to select as the applicable law a system with which 

their contract has no factual connection provided that the intention expressed by the parties is bona fide 

and legal and provided also that there is no reason for avoiding the choice on the ground of public 

policy ([1939] ac (P.C.) 277 at 289 – 290 as cited in Wolfe n.1. Plendar, 89 n 15, Edwards 368 n 13). 

Thus with regard to the last qualification, where a choice of law governing a contract is contrary to the 

public policy (order public) of the forum it will not be enforced in that forum i.e. the lex fori. However, 

not every compulsory rule of law of the forum constitutes a rule of public policy (Wolfe, 2002:419). 

Thus for example, where the lack of consideration in a contract under English law is a bar to its 

validity this is not so under South African law where intention of the parties is paramount. The South 

African law will be enforced in an English forum, as it does not offend against an English rule of 

public policy. 

According to Wolfe the requirements of bona fide and legality are not without ambiguity. The 

mere intention of eliminating certain compulsory rules that would normally be applicable is neither 

necessary nor sufficient to constitute male fides. ‘[S]ome morally impeachable or some anomalous and 

unreasonable choice of law’ would probably be required by the English courts to render the parties’ 

intention as male fide (Wolfe, 2002:419). Therefore the English courts would uphold a choice of law, 

which avoids a mandatory rule for some ‘sound idea of business convenience and common sense’. The 

term ’legality’ however, has not been qualified but Wolfe speculates that it could be a reference to the 

legality of a contract or its performance according to the domestic law of the place of contracting or the 

place of performance (Wolfe, 2002: 419). 

In the Canadian case of United Nations v Atlantic Seaways Corporation ([1979] 2FC 514 -555, 

99 DLR (3 

72 

rd ) 609 621 cited in Edwards 363 n13) the requirements of “bona fide and legal” were 

interpreted to fashion an evasion doctrine in that the proper law must not have been chosen to evade a 

mandatory law with which the contract has its closest and most real connection (Edwards, 1990: 363). 

The doctrine of evasion was applied in an Australian case where a choice of law by the parties, which 

sought to evade a statutory provision of Queensland, was held to be invalid (Edwards, 1990 363).


American jurisprudence also recognizes the notion of party autonomy as well as limitations on 

party autonomy. However, where a choice-of-law conflicts with the law of the forum state i.e. the lex 

fori it is not struck down merely for that reason. It is where the conflict ‘rises to the level of public 

policy’ that the American courts would consider striking it down and that too where the public policy 

is ‘strong’ or ‘fundamental’ (Scoles and Hay, 1992: 663-664). Thus also in the case of adhesion 

contracts (Scoles and Hay 1992; 666) where an economically stronger party drafts a contract 

unilaterally, a choice-of-law clause would not be struck down simply because of inequality of 

bargaining power or a lack of negotiations. The choice-of-law clause will be struck down only if its 

operation would be to the detriment of the weaker party (Scoles and Hay, 1992: 666) as it would 

offend against a strong public policy. 

As regards South African jurisprudence, it appears that the courts have never been called upon 

to determine the limits of party autonomy (Edwards, 1990: 361). With reference to South African caselaw, 

in Commissioner of Inland Revenue v Estate Greenacre (1936 NPD 225 ) and Premier Wire and 

Steel Co Ltd v Marsk Line (1969 (3) SA 499 (C) although it is not clear whether parties by their choice 

of law could avoid a ius cogens, Forsythe is of the opinion that it is possible. While academic writers 

are of the view that a wide concept of party autonomy should be favoured in South African law, its 

application should not be absolute. Thus a choice of law that evades a mandatory rule in favour of the 

weaker party in contractual relations such as those that protect consumers, should not be upheld by a 

court for being fraus legis. An example of such a mandatory provision applicable to electronic 

contracts is section 47 of South Africa’s Electronic Communications and Transactions Act of 2002 

which provides for the protection of consumers irrespective of the legal system applicable to the 

agreement in question. Section 48 provides that any agreement that excludes any rights of a consumer 

in terms of Chapter 7 of the Act shall be null and void. The Act may be described as a directly 

applicable statute that limits party autonomy. Directly applicable statutes may be either express or 

implied. An example of a directly applicable statute by implication is the Basic Conditions of 

Employment Act of 1983 in terms of which an employer may not avoid its provisions in favour of an 

employee by a choice of law which is not the lex causae (Rome Convention Articles 5 and 6). But the 

question that arises is whether and to what extent would a South African court apply a directly 

applicable statute or a principle of public policy of a foreign legal system. It appears that it would not 

do so where the performance of the contract is a crime in the place where the act is to be performed 

(Forsythe 1990: 302). In contrast, however, where the choice of law avoids a mandatory rule which 

otherwise would frustrate the commercial goals or business interests of the parties, such a choice ought 

to be recognized and applied (Edwards,1990: 363) Thus it may be stated that a choice-of-law clause in 

a contract would be struck down if it offends against some public policy embodied in a statute of a 

state whose law would have been the otherwise applicable law, or where it would result in substantial 

injustice to a party in an inferior bargaining position. It should be noted also that a choice-of-law clause 

may not be struck down by a statute in its entirety but only in respect of matters hit by it (Collier, 1998: 

208). 

International conventions may also impose limits on party autonomy, examples of which are 

the International Monetary Fund Agreement (Bretton Woods Agreement) of 1944, the UNIDROIT 

Principles of International Commercial Contracts and the Rome Convention of 1980. States that are 

members of the International Monetary are bound by Article VIII 2(b) of the Bretton Woods 

Agreement not to enforce exchange contracts that conflict with the exchange control regulations of 

other member states imposed in deference to the Bretton Woods Agreement. The UNIDROIT 

Principles in Article 1.4 provides for the application of mandatory rules, whether of national, 

international or supranational origin, which are applicable in terms of the relevant rules of private 

international law. Also in terms of Article 1.5 it provides for mandatory Principles embodied in it from 

which the parties themselves may not derogate. The European Economic Community’s Convention on 

the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations (The Rome Convention of 1980) has been widely 

73


acknowledged and consequently accepted as the instrument embodying harmonized rules of the law 

applicable to contracts. It represents a codification of the private international law rules relating to 

contract that ‘are similar, if not identical, throughout the common law world outside the United States.’ 

A clear manifestation of this is the provision relating to the principles of party autonomy and the 

freedom of choice of law applicable to the contract in Article 3 under Title II Uniform Rules. 

Party Autonomy and the South African Bill of Rights 

Party autonomy, which has been notionalized on the universally recognized philosophical premise of 

individual autonomy, is an entrenched principle of private international law i.e. the conflicts law of a 

nation state. The question is whether it enjoys the same protection and respect as the fundamental 

rights and freedoms enshrined in the South African Bill of Rights (Chapter 2 of the Constitution of the 

Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996). 

At first blush, party autonomy is not a freedom or right that is specifically protected by the 

Constitution nor does the Constitution ‘posit an independent right to autonomy’ as stated in Jordan & 

Others v The State CCT 31/01 at [53] What the Constitution specifically recognizes and protects is the 

right to freedom of trade. Section 22 of the Constitution provides that ‘[e]very citizen has the right to 

choose their (sic) trade, occupation or profession freely. The practice of a trade, occupation or 

profession may be regulated by law’ – law is understood to mean legislation, the common law and 

customary law. The choice of a trade suggests the pursuit of some commercial economic activity as 

distinguished from an occupation or profession. Implicit in such a construction is that freedom to trade 

would entail a freedom to contract of which party autonomy is a universally recognized principle. The 

inference is that the application of the principle of party autonomy is subject to constitutional scrutiny 

and for it to be recognized and protected it must pass constitutional muster. 

It may be argued that the freedom to trade is applicable to ‘citizens’ who are considered to be 

natural persons and not necessarily applicable to a ‘party’ which may include artificial persons as well. 

Whether section 22 would be applicable to artificial persons is a question of interpretation of the Bill of 

Rights. Section 8 (4) specifically provides that a juristic person is entitled to the rights in the Bill of 

Rights to the extent required by the nature of the rights and the nature of that juristic person. But if 

‘citizen’ is strictly interpreted as meaning a natural person, then it may be left to the courts to ‘lift the 

corporate veil’ and look to the members that control the affairs of the company (De Waal et al, 2000: 

353). 

If this cannot be so then recourse may be had to the doctrine of objective unconstitutionality. 

Thus where a law unconstitutionally violates a section 22 right of a citizen, it is objectively invalid. A 

corporate applicant having an interest in terms of section 38 of the Bill of Rights can challenge the 

constitutional validity of such a law without having to show that its own constitutional right has been 

infringed by that law (De Waal et al, 2000: 353) 

Alternatively, even if it is argued that the Bill of Rights does not protect those rights and 

freedoms not specifically enshrined in it and that the freedom to trade does not extend to include the 

freedom to contract, it is submitted that the notion of party autonomy and its application may still be 

subject to constitutional scrutiny with reference to other relevant provisions of the Constitution, viz 

sections 2 and 39 (3). The supremacy of the Constitution is specifically enunciated by the Founding 

Provisions of Chapter 1. Section 2 of the Constitution provides that the Constitution is the supreme law 

of the Republic; law or conduct inconsistent with it is invalid, and the obligations imposed by it must 

be fulfilled. As regards the interpretation of the Bill of Rights, section 39 (3) provides that the Bill of 

Rights does not deny the existence of any other rights or freedoms that are recognized or conferred by 

common law, customary law or legislation, to the extent that they are consistent with the Bill. 

74


Conclusion 

From the above it may be concluded that while party autonomy and the freedom to contract should be 

wide, it is nevertheless not absolute and may be limited by the common law, statutes and international 

conventions. But, however, since the very quintessence of the freedom of choice of law is an 

expression of individual autonomy, therefore any attempt to limit party autonomy should be exercised 

with considerable restraint whether by a court of law or by a law of general application. 

References: 

Books: 

1. Collier JG Conflict of Laws 2 nd edition Cambridge University Press. 

2. Chaskalson M et al Constitutional Law of South Africa [Revision Services 5, 1999] Juta & 

Company. 

3. De Waal J et al The Bill of Rights Handbook 3 rd edition Juta & Co. Ltd 2000. 

4. See Edwards ‘Conflict of Laws’ n 1 at 360 in LAWSA First Reissue Vol 2. 

5. Forsythe C Private International Law 4 th edition Juta 1990 

6. Forsythe C Choice of law and delictual obligations from Private International Law 2 nd edition 

Juta 1990 

7. Joubert WA (ed) The Law of South Africa First Reissue Volume 2 Butterworths Durban 1993. 

8. North PM (ed) Contract Conflicts North – Holland Publishing Company 1982. 

9. Plender R The European Contracts Convention Sweet & Maxwell London. 

10. Scoles EF, Hay P Conflict of Laws Hornbook Series St. Paul Minn West Publishing Company 

1992. 

11. Weintraub RJ Commentary On The Conflict Of Laws 3 rd edition Mineola New York The 

Foundation Press Inc 1986. 

12. Wolff M Private International Law 2 nd edition Clarendon Press Oxford. 

Cases: 

1. Commissioner of Inland Revenue v Estate Greenacre 1936 NPD. 

2. Guggenheim v Rosenbaum (2) 1961 4 SA 21 (W). 

3. Henry v Branfield 1996 (1) SA 244 (D). 

4. Jordan & Others v The State CCT 31/01 

5. Premier Wire and Steel Co Ltd v Marsk Line 1969 (3) SA 488 (C). 

6. Regazzoni v Sethia [1958] AC 301 (HL). 

7. Standard Bank of S A Ltd v Efroiken and Newman 1924 AD. 

8. The Torni [1932]. 

9. United Nations v Atlantic Seaways Corporation [1979] 2 FC. 

10. Vita Food Products v Unus Shipping Co [1939] A.C. (P.C.). 

Legislation : 

1. Basic Conditions of Employment Act Act 3 of 1983. 

2. Electronic Communications and Transactions Act Act 25 of 2002. 

Conventions and instruments: 

1. Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations (The Rome Convention of 1980) 

2. UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts 

75


Concerns of Nigerian Preservice Teachers and Their 

Implications for Teacher Education 

Michael U.C. Ejieh 

Department of Educational Administration and Planning 



Sunday A. Makinde 

Institute of Education 



Abstract 

The purpose of this study was to identify the concerns of preservice teachers in Obafemi 

Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Data for the study were collected with a 

questionnaire administered to 153 student teachers of the university who were about to 

proceed on teaching practice exercise. Data analysis revealed that the preservice teachers 

showed much concern for school location, classroom discipline, pupil-teacher 

relationships, pupils poor communication skills. In all, they expressed more of self or 

survival concerns than task concerns with little concern for pupils learning. The 

implications of the findings for teacher education were highlighted. 

Introduction 

Teaching practice or the practicum is an essential component of teacher education programmes. 

This field experience offers prospective teachers opportunities to put into practice what they have been 

taught about teaching and also to face some dilemmas of teaching such as handling classroom 

problems and catering to the needs of both slow and fast learners in the same class. It also gives 

teacher educators opportunities to address these dilemmas (Harrington, 1995). Prospective teachers’ 

experiences during teaching practice exercises go a long way towards enhancing or restructuring their 

understanding of the reality of teaching. Based on such experiences, some of them make up their 

minds on whether or not to remain in the teaching profession after graduation and for how long they 

will teach. Some may even drop out of the teacher education programme entirely. Since this activity is 

crucial in the formation of some prospective teachers’ attitudes towards teaching and their continued or 

subsequent professional development, their concerns during teaching practice exercises deserve the 

attention of teacher educators and educational administrators. 

In this paper, we present the report of a study in which we investigated the concerns of the 

students following the teacher education programme of one of the first generation universities in southwestern 

Nigeria. 

Teacher education in nigeria 

The federal and state governments of Nigeria are actively engaged in the production of teachers 

for quality education at the different levels of the educational system. With the launching of the 

76


Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme by the federal government in 1999, training and 

retraining of teachers for primary and secondary education have received added impetus. While the 

colleges of education in the country produce teachers mainly for the primary schools, over 32 out of 

about 60 public and private universities in the country offer teacher education programmes of three or 

four-year duration, depending on the entry qualifications of the teacher education candidates. Teacher 

candidates who gain admission into the universities through the University Matriculations Examination 

follow the four-year programme and do some general studies in the first year before embarking on the 

professional teacher development aspect of the programme in the second year. The three-year 

programme is for those with more advanced educational qualifications who gain admission through 

direct entry and start with professional development programme from their first year of studies. 

An important component of the teacher education programme is the teaching practice or the 

practicum. Students in both programmes go for teaching practice twice in the course of their studies. 

With minor variations among the universities, the first practicum takes place after the first year of 

professional development studies and the second one takes place a year later. Both of them consist of a 

six-week teaching block and require full-time commitment of student teachers in secondary schools 

where they are supervised and their teaching performance is assessed by their university lecturers. 

The problem 

Nigerian universities send student teachers in their thousands every year to schools all over 

Nigeria to acquire field experience in teaching but the concerns of these preservice teachers and even 

the serving teachers have received little, if any attention by Nigerian educational administrators and 

university teacher educators. Nor have educational researchers shown any interest in the problem. 

Consequently, empirical data on the concerns of both preservice teachers and serving teachers are 

lacking in the country. This study was, therefore, designed to identify the clusters of, and specific 

concerns of preservice teachers in regard to their teaching practice. The subjects of this study were 

undergraduate students of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. The university, which was 

founded in 1962, is one of the first generation universities in Nigeria. Since its inception it has been 

running a teacher education programme for the production of teachers for secondary schools. Like 

other universities in the country, students following this programme embark on a mandatory six-week 

teaching practice exercise twice in Parts Two and Three of the programme. Specifically, the study 

sought answers to the following questions: 

1. What are the specific concerns of Obafemi Awolowo University student teachers about 

teaching practice? 

2. What type(s) of concerns are most important to them? 

3. Do the concerns of preservice teachers with previous teaching practice experiences differ from 

those with such experiences? 

It is expected that the results of this study will be useful to Nigerian educators for the planning and 

review of teacher education programmes. This kind of study will also be useful to the preservice 

teachers and school administrators including supervisors, school principals and Ministry of Education 

personnel, in order to help them to understand the concerns of beginning teachers. Addressing these 

concerns appropriately will (hopefully) decrease the rate of attrition of teacher candidates as they go 

through their programmes (O’Connor & Taylor, 1992). Such a study is particularly necessary in the 

Nigerian context where teaching is an unattractive profession and does not attract academically good 

candidates for training compared to other professions. This is mainly because teaching continue, to be 

accorded low social status in Nigeria inspite of the efforts of both state and federal governments to 

improve the working conditions of civil servants, including teachers, in the country. 

77


Theoretical framework 

The concept of concerns was used by Fuller (1969) to develop a model of preservice teachers’ stages of 

development. The original model was later modified by Fuller and Bown (1975) to depict three stages 

made up of three clusters of concerns which those learning to teach implicitly undergo in the course of 

their professional development. These stages of teacher concerns are: survival concerns, teaching 

situation concerns and pupil concerns. Survival concerns are those that deal with one’s adequacy as a 

teacher and focus on such things as ability to control a class, acceptability by pupils, meeting 

supervisors and regular teachers expectations, etc. Teaching situation concerns include the tasks to be 

performed, the materials to be used, time and other situational factors. Pupil concerns focus on the 

needs of pupils, their social and emotional well being, individualizing instruction, their cognitive 

development and equity among others (Fuller & Bown, 1975:37). According to them, changes in these 

concerns by preservice teachers imply changes in their professional development. Some researchers 

have refined and confirmed this model in regard to serving teachers and refer to the above-named 

categories of concerns as survival or self concerns, task concerns and impact concerns respectively 

(Hall & Loucks, 1978; Katz, 1972). Others have based their work on it (See Chan & Leung, 2002; 

Kagan, 1992). 

It should be noted that the appropriateness of this model for explaining student teachers’ stages 

of development as teachers has, however, been called into question in recent times. In a longitudinal 

study of novice teachers’ concerns, for instance, Turley and Wood (2002) found that beginning 

teachers were less concerned with “self” and more concerned with students than had been reported in 

earlier studies. The probable reasons for this, they suggested, were recent changes in teacher 

preparation programmes and intergenerational change among beginning teachers. 

Methodology 

The survey approach was adopted in this study in order to provide a description of things as they are at 

a point in time (Denscombe, 1998). 

The subjects of this study were 153, students in this programme selected by stratified random 

sampling. Eighty three of them were in Part Two (or year two) while 70 were in Part Three (or year 

three) of the programme. They were posted to secondary schools in and around Ile-Ife town in October 

2002 for the six-week teaching practice exercise. 

The instrument used for data collection was an open-ended questionnaire which was 

administered to them shortly before they left for the practicum in their different schools. A 

questionnaire was considered appropriate for this study as fairly straightforward and relatively brief 

information from respondents who were able to read and understand the questions (Denscombe, 1998). 

The questionnaire required them to list aspects of teaching practice, matters and problems or 

difficulties related to it, which were of concern to them, or which made them feel uneasy about the then 

forthcoming teaching practice exercise. The students were also asked to choose and rank any of the 

three items listed by them and rank them in their order of importance to them, with the most worrisome 

ranked first. 

Data analysis 

An initial step in qualitative analysis is to read through the documents that are to be analysed (Dey, 

1993). The concern statements by the subjects were read a number of times and interpreted 

independently by three people – the two investigators and a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education. 

For purposes of classifying the concerned statements two or all must agree on the specific issue or 

problem being addressed in each statement of concern by the subjects and the category of concerns – 

self, task, or impact on pupils – into which it fits. All expressions of ‘no concern’ or expressions of 

78


those concerns, which did not fit into any of the above-mentioned categories were classified as 

‘unrelated’ and were not used in data analysis. The criterion for reporting a specific concern was that it 

must be stated by at least five of the subjects. Simple frequency counts and percentages were used to 

analyse the data. 

It must be admitted that, with a relatively small sample size, this study has all the limitations of a 

small-scale study. 

Results 

The student teachers concerns 

Out of the 153 subjects in the study, 23 stated either that they had no concerns or stated concerns that 

were not relevant to teaching practice. The specific concerns stated by the rest of the subjects (130), 

the number of preservice teachers expressing each concern, and the major categories under which they 

fall are presented in Table 1. 

79

Table 1: Types of Concerns Reported by the Subjects 


Types of Concern Frequency % 

1. Survival Concerns 

Classroom discipline 31 23.85 

Pupil-teacher relationships 25 19.23 

Lecturers’ assessments 23 17.69 

School location 22 16.92 

Lecturers’ comments 15 11.54 

Transportation 13 10.00 

Accommodation 13 10.00 

Comments by school staff 10 7.69 

Overcrowded classrooms 9 6.92 

Relationship with school staff 8 6.15 

Lack of finance for the exercise 6 4.62 

School environment 5 3.85 

Total 180 

2. Task Concerns 

Making and using teaching aids 32 24.62 

Pupils’ poor communication skills 22 16.92 

Contents of school syllabus 21 16.15 

Getting relevant text books 18 13.85 

Motivating pupils to learn 17 13.08 

Class level to teach 15 11.54 

Topics to teach 15 11.54 

Writing lesson plans 15 11.54 

Availability of Laboratories /workshops/ studios 10 7.69 

Work load to be given 5 3.85 

Total 170 

3. Impact Concerns 

Pupils’ achievement in the class 6 4.62 

Pupils’ physical and moral development 5 3.85 

Influence of teacher on pupils 5 3.85 

Total 16 

80


Table 1 indicates that out of a total of 336 concern statements, 180, 170, and 16 are in the 

categories of survival, task and impact concerns respectively. The specific concerns that were most 

frequently mentioned by the respondents include making and using teaching aids, maintaining 

classroom discipline, pupil-teacher relationships, lecturers’ assessments of their performances, school 

location, pupils’ poor communication skills and getting copies of school syllabus. 

Most important concerns 

The questionnaire required the respondents to list any three of the concerns stated by them in 

their order of importance to them. The results are as presented in Table 2, which shows that the top 

five most important concerns of the respondents are school location, maintaining classroom discipline, 

pupil-teacher relationships, lecturers’ comments, and transportation. These concerns were mentioned 

by, at least ten of the respondents. 

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Table 2: Preservice Teachers’ Concerns by Types, Ranks, Number of Specific Concerns and Percentages 

S/N TYPES OF CONCERNS RANKS 

1 2 3 

1. Survival Concerns No % No % No % 

School location 21 16.15 1 0.77 - - 

Classroom discipline 20 15.38 5 3.85 6 4.62 

Pupil-teacher relationships 16 12.31 5 3.85 4 3.08 

Lecturers’ comments 11 8.46 4 3.08 - - 

Transportation 10 7.69 3 2.31 - - 

Overcrowded classrooms 5 3.85 2 1.54 2 1.54 

Accommodation 5 3.85 6 4.62 2 1.54 

Lack of finance for the exercise 5 3.85 1 0.77 - - 

Lecturers’ assessments 3 2.31 11 8.46 9 6.92 

Relationship with school staff 3 2.31 5 3.85 - - 

Comments by school staff 3 2.31 - - 7 5.38 

School environment 2 1.54 3 2.31 - - 

Sub-totals 104 80.01 46 35.41 30 23.08 

2. Task Concerns 

Pupils’ poor communication skills 7 5.38 8 6.15 7 5.38 

Making and using teaching aids 4 3.08 22 16.92 6 4.62 

Writing of lesson plans 4 3.08 6 4.61 5 3.85 

Motivating pupils to learn 4 3.08 5 3.85 8 6.15 

Class level to teach 4 3.08 3 2.31 8 6.15 

Availability of Laboratories/ 2 1.54 5 3.85 3 2.31 

workshops/studios 

Contents of school syllabus - - 12 9.23 9 6.92 

Getting relevant text books - - 8 6.15 10 7.69 

Topics to teach - - 7 5.38 8 6.15 

Work load to be given - - 2 1.54 3 2.31 

Sub-Totals 25 19.24 78 59.99 67 51.53 

3. Impact Concerns 

Pupils’ achievement in the class 1 0.77 - - 5 3.85 

Pupils’ physical and moral 

development 

- - 3 2.31 2 1.54 

Influence of teacher on pupils - - 2 1.54 3 2.31 

Sub-totals 1 0.77 5 3.85 10 7.70 

Table 2 shows that the student teachers were predominantly at the stage of self or survival 

concerns with only a few of them (about 20%) regarding task and impact as important concerns in 

teaching. The table also shows that only one respondent (less than 1%) regarded impact as an 

important concern. In regard to survival concerns, their anxiety centred mainly around school location, 

classroom discipline and pupil-teacher relationships. Impact concerns were yet to assume any measure 

of importance to them. 

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Teaching practice experience and types of concerns 

Out of the 130 subjects in the study, 97 had previous teaching practice experience while 33 

indicated that they had no teaching practice experience. Those with teaching practice experience 

indicated that they had such experiences in either the colleges of education they attended before they 

entered the university or after completing their Part Two courses in the university, or both. 

There were no differences in the types of specific concerns expressed by both groups of student 

teachers. There were also no notable differences between them in regard to the importance of these 

concerns to them. There was only a minor difference between them in this respect with regard to their 

concerns for transportation and accommodation. Seven out of the ten subjects who ranked 

transportation as their most important concerns were those without previous teaching experience. 

Also, all the 11 subjects who ranked accommodation as either their first and/or their second most 

important concerns were those without previous teaching experience. 

Discussion 

Student teachers’ concerns 

Table 1 shows that the Nigerian preservice teachers in this study expressed clusters of concerns similar 

to those in Fuller and Bown’s (1975) model. A greater number of survival concerns than task 

concerns were expressed by the subjects while a negligible number expressed impact concerns. In 

terms of the relative proportions of their specific concerns in the self, task and impact categories of 

concerns, the findings of this study are in support of Fuller and Bown’s (1975) model of preservice 

teachers’ stages of professional development. This study adds substance to the results of previous 

researches, which show that for students entering the student teaching experience, self-concerns were 

high and task and impact concerns were less evident. According to Hall and Hord (1987), concerns at 

this point have to do with feelings of potential inadequacy, self-doubts about the knowledge required, 

or uncertainty about the situation they are about to face. 

The Nigerian preservice teachers in this study expressed almost similar concerns with those in 

studies elsewhere (Chan & Leung 2002; Veenan 1984 & 1987 cited in Meister & Melnick, 2002). 

Notable differences are in regard to preponderance of self or survival concerns expressed by the 

Nigerian respondents in this study. 

The respondents in this study also differed from those in similar studies elsewhere by not expressing 

concerns about assessing pupils’ work, record keeping and management of time. It may be wrong to 

assume that they were competent in these areas of work. They might not have given any thought to 

them as they were preoccupied with self concerns. 

These differences could result from the differences in emphasis given to different aspects of the 

teacher education programme by Nigerian educators and their counterparts elsewhere. Although the 

Nigerian sample is small, the differences could be a reflection of the possible differences in the 

characteristics of Nigerian student teachers and their counterparts elsewhere. It is possible that, for 

reasons to be given below, the Nigerian preservice teachers in the study were less dedicated to their 

training programme than their counterparts and, consequently, were slower than them in developing 

professional skills. 

The Most Important Concerns 

Table 2 shows that survival concerns were ranked as the most important by about 80% of the subjects 

of the study while less than 20% of them ranked task concerns as the most important. Among the 

category of survival concerns, ‘school location’ was of the greatest importance to them. This is 

probably a manifestation of the impact of the environment or context on the teaching/leaning process 

as this study was done shortly after a feud between Ile-Ife and an adjoining community (Modakeke) in 

which many lives were lost and property, including schools, were destroyed. With no assurance that 

83


the feud was over, the student teachers in this study might have been so much concerned with the 

possibility of being placed in schools located along or near the boundary of the two communities, 

which they perceived as unsafe or volatile, that they had a greater intensity of concern for survival than 

for either the task of teaching or its impact on pupils. It is not surprising, therefore, that under these 

circumstances, the student teachers’ concerns for placement would be heightened. Added to this is the 

natural concern some of them, like most people, would have for working in any unfamiliar setting. 

Even veteran teachers are reported to revert to lower stages of development when placed in unfamiliar 

teaching environments (Katz, 1972). 

Their concern for overcrowded classroom might not have been unconnected with their 

perceived effect of the destruction of some classroom blocks in some schools during the communal 

disturbances. This may also explain their concern for school environment. It should be noted that 

many of the classrooms in the area, Ile-Ife were already overcrowded due to lack of adequate 

infrastructural facilities even before the outbreak of the communal clashes. Most of the schools in that 

area currently have sizes of 60 and above. 

Apart from school location, classroom discipline is the second greatest concern of the 

respondents. Table 1 also shows that this tops the list of concerns expressed by them. Their concern 

for overcrowded classrooms (mentioned by a few of them) is invariably linked to classroom discipline. 

Concerns for classroom discipline or for dealing with pupils’ disruptive behaviour, pupil-teacher 

relationships and assessment by lecturers expressed by the subjects in the present study have been 

shown to be important survival or self concerns of preservice and beginning teacher in similar studies 

elsewhere (Meister & Melnick, 2002; Chan & Leung, 2002). 

In regard to the subjects of this study, these concerns could be a reflection of one of the 

weaknesses of the teacher education programme of the university: classroom management is not 

offered as a full course in the programme. Only some aspects of it are taught in a course titled School 

Management. Exposing preservice teachers to a full classroom management course may not totally 

eliminate classroom management related concerns among them but will surely go a long way in 

minimizing the problem. As Turley and Wood’s (2002) study has shown, it is possible to meaningfully 

address these areas of concerns through appropriate teacher preparation programmes. 

The major task concern of the respondents was about teaching methods. They expressed unease with 

how to teach pupils with poor communication skills. This problem has come into view in especially 

the junior secondary school classes in the state mainly because of democratization of secondary 

education and the virtually non-selective admission policy of the State’s Ministry of Education that 

owns the public schools involved in the study. In these schools, English language is the official 

language of instruction but many products of the state’s primary schools do not develop sufficient 

proficiency in the language for work at the secondary level of education. Some student teachers who 

understand and speak Yoruba, which is the local language, often have to resort to the use of mother 

tongue for teaching some aspects of their lessons in order to enhance the students’ understanding – a 

practice often frowned upon by their lecturers who expect them to teach the whole lesson (apart from 

Yoruba language as a subject of study) in English. This problem of teaching pupils in a language 

which they do not clearly understand partly explains why some of them expressed concern with 

motivating pupils to learn. 

Use of teaching aids in class was another important task concerns of the student teachers. This 

is understandable as their various methods course teachers in the university emphasise the preparation 

and use of relevant instructional materials for lesson delivery by student teachers. Moreover, this 

aspect of their teaching practice is weighted relatively highly in the assessment of their performance in 

class. Table 1 shows that this was the specific concern expressed by the highest number of students – a 

reflection of the wish of many of them to get good scores in the teaching practice exercise. 

Other task concerns of the students teachers, included the content of the syllabus, availability of 

relevant text books, the topics to teach, motivating pupils to learn, and class level to teach. These 

concerns suggest student teachers’ unease with their mastery of the subject matter, lack of knowledge 

84


of how to teach and, for some, unease with teaching practice as a whole. To understand this, it has to 

be noted that many of the students in the teacher education of the programme of the University, and 

indeed other federal universities in the country, are virtually forced to be in the programme after failing 

to secure admission into the programmes of their first choice. Owing to the low social status of the 

teaching profession in Nigeria, only very few candidates seek admission into university faculties of 

education. In this university, at least two out of every five students in the teacher education 

programme would initially have sought for admission in other faculties especially the Faculties of 

Social Science, Science, Arts and Environmental Management to read such courses as accountancy, 

economics, geology, computer science, and so forth, which lead to jobs that attract higher incomes and 

social status than does teaching and when they are unsuccessful, would apply to the Faculty of 

Education as a last resort. 

On being offered admission, such students enter the teacher education programme in order to 

secure a foothold in the university in the first instance and later on transfer to other faculties, or even 

retake the University Matriculation Examination, in their efforts to read the course of interest to them. 

Thus, a good number of students in the teacher education programme in the University have no 

genuine interest in the programme ab initio. Entering the programme with little or no interest in the 

teaching profession, little or no attempts will be made by the student teachers either to immerse 

themselves in the practicum or aspire to develop any professional skills. Consequently, their concern 

for their pupils’ learning will be limited. The need for reviewing the process of selecting candidates 

for teacher education is, therefore, indicated. 

This lack of interest in the programme is reflected in the responses of 23 of the subjects of this 

study who claimed that they had no concerns about teaching practice or who stated some concerns that 

were not related to teaching practice. Typical of such unrelated concern statements were: ‘the problem 

of transferring to another faculty’; ‘missing part of the holiday period’, and ‘how to improve on my 

grade point average’. The concern with the grade point average invariably has more to do with the 

students’ acceptability in the faculties or departments to which they would like to transfer than with 

their performance in the teacher education programme. Naturally, one has concerns for activities or 

situations which are important to oneself. 

Teaching experience and types of concern 

It was found in this study, there was no difference in the types of concerns expressed by those students 

who had previous teaching practice experience and those who did not. This is in spite of the fact that 

over half of the students, especially those who entered the programme after graduating from Colleges 

of Education, had gone on teaching practice exercise three or more times previously with each exercise 

lasting not less than six weeks. 

This could also be accounted for in terms of the finding of Katz’s (1972) study, when even veternan 

teachers are placed in new teaching situations, they revert to earlier stages of development. This, 

according to him, is because in unfamiliar environments survival concerns become more prominent 

than higher order concerns. It could be that those with previous teaching practice experience were as 

equally concerned with their placement in new teaching situations as those without teaching pratictice 

experience. Another possible explanation could be that the teacher education programmes in some 

Nigerian Colleges of Education and that of the university involved in this study do not lay adequate 

emphasis on pupils’ learning. It could also be that teacher educators do not offer student teachers 

adequate opportunities to develop the right attitudes and skills to address this task. 

The minor differences between those with previous practice experience and those without it in 

regard to the ranking of their concerns for transportation and accommodation came as no surprise 

because it is expected that some of the student teachers who had not had the practicum experience in 

the university and has not addressed issues of transportation and accommodation associated with it, 

would be more anxious about them that those that had had the experience. 

85


Conclusion and implications 

The results of this study indicate that the preservice teachers of Obafemi Awolowo University were 

preoccupied with mainly survival or self concerns as they set about for teaching practice. Among their 

greatest worries in this regard were school location, classroom discipline and pupil-teacher 

relationships. Of all these, the nature of the environment in which the teaching practice exercise was to 

take place seemed to have contributed to the predominance of this category of concerns among the 

subjects. Under such circumstances they had limited concerns for the learning needs of the pupils and 

their social and emotional well being. This suggests the need for the organizers of the practicum to 

take some measures aimed at making student teachers move from concerns about ‘survival’ to concern 

about pupils’ learning in conflict situations. Student teachers need to be assured of their personal safety 

in their placement schools. This may be achieved in a number of ways. One of these is by posting 

them to schools that are distant from conflict zones and informing them ahead of the commencement of 

the practicum that such an action has been taken. If the organizers of the exercise or the university 

authority are convinced that it is safe to work in such schools but the student teachers still have some 

doubt, the accredited leaders of the communities engaged in the conflict may be invited during the 

orientation of student teachers for teaching practice, to assure them of the safety of the environments of 

their placement schools. 

The results of this study also show that the greatest task concerns centred upon teaching methods. 

Being preoccupied with self and task concerns they gave limited consideration to pupils’ learning or 

even assessing pupils’ work, record keeping and management of time. It is thus apparent that the 

teacher education programme of the university did not equip the subjects of this study with adequate 

personal and pedagogical skills to instill self confidence in them as they prepared for the teaching 

practice. 

These data thus support the conclusions drawn from similar studies to the effect that those 

learning how to teach often lack the requisite knowledge of classroom procedures to understand the 

complex interrelationships among management, behaviour and academic tasks (Kagan, 1992). Also, in 

regard to developmental stages in learning how to teach, as implicit in Fuller and Bown’s (1975:37) 

model, our data seem to suggest that progression from low to higher order concerns depends, among 

other things, on the interest and dedication of the student teachers in their programme of studies. This 

calls for a selection procedure based first and foremost on students’ interest in the teacher education 

programme of the university. 

Although the average Nigerian is yet to be convinced that teaching is an attractive profession 

(Fadipe, 1992:205) admission into teacher education programmes in Nigerian universities should, as 

far as is practicable, be confined to those interested in teaching. It is this group of student teachers that 

can be expected to develop some feelings, be preoccupied with and give thought to the various aspects 

of their programmes including teaching practice. There are more chances of finding these types of 

student teachers among those who graduated from Colleges of Education and subsequently seek 

admission into university teacher education programmes than among those who have to follow that 

programme because they could not obtain admission into other programmes in which they are 

genuinely interested. 

The results of this study suggest some implications for teacher education. The process of 

selecting candidates for the teacher education of the university studied needs to be reviewed. There is 

the need for teacher educators to ensure that teacher trainees are not only interested in teacher 

education programmes but are also adequately exposed to courses in classroom management and 

especially techniques of managing disruptive behaviour as early as possible in their programmes. This 

also calls for a review of the university’s teacher education programme to include such course 

management and behaviour skills learnt in the courses should be practised in micro-teaching sessions 

before trainees embark on their first teaching practice. During such sessions, teacher educators need to 

lay as much emphasis on learners and how they learn as they do in regard to making and using 

86


teaching aids. Teacher trainees also stand to benefit from enriched courses in the teaching of slow 

learners. Observation of teachers at work by trainees before the exercise could also be of some help. 

This is an aspect that is lacking in most teacher education programmes in Nigeria. Placement decisions 

should be taken quite ahead of the commencement of teaching practice exercise and student teachers 

informed accordingly. Schools for the exercise should be those considered as being in safe and secure 

environments by student teachers. This will not only reduce the intensity of their concerns for survival 

but will also be conducive for learning skills for performing higher order tasks. Just as suggested by 

Burke and Hillison (1991) in regard to the concerns of agricultural education teachers, those who work 

with preservice teachers should be apprised of their concerns, monitor these concerns both formally 

and informally and take any justified action when necessary in order to maintain their interests and also 

minimize the rate at which they drop out from the programme. 

References 

[1] Burke, S.R. & Hillison, J. (1991). Practising agricultural teachers’ concerns and their 

implications for improving the profession. Journal of Agricultural Education, Summer 1991, 

10-18. 

[2] Chan, Kwok-wai & Leung Man-tak (2002). Hong Kong preservice teachers’ focus of concerns 

and confidence to teach. 98 Abstracts. Hong Kong: Institute of Education. 

[3] Denscombe, M. (1998). The Good Research Guide for Small-Scale Social Science Projects. 

Buckingham: Open University Press. 

[4] Deyi, I. (1993). Qualitative Data Analysis: A User-Friendly Guide for Social Scientists. 

London: Routledge. 

[5] Fadipe, J.O. (1992). ‘The achievements and shortcomings of teacher education programme in 

Nigeria: An administrator’s view’, in Ndu, A. (Ed.) Educational Policy and Implementation in 

Nigeria. Awka: The Nigerian Association for Educational Administration and Planning. 

[6] Fuller, F.F. (1969). Concerns of teachers: a developmental conceptualization. American 

Educational Research Journal, 6, 207-226. 

[7] Fuller, F.F. & Bown, O.H. (1975). Becoming a teacher. In Ryan, K. (Ed.) Teacher Education: 

74th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University of 

Chicago Press, 25-52. 

[8] Hall, G.E. & Hord, S.M. (1987). Change in Schools: Facilitating the Process. New York: 

State of New York University Press. 

[9] Hall, G. & Loucks, S.F. (1978). Teacher concerns as basis for facilitating and personalizing 

staff development. Teachers’ College Record, 80(1), 36-53. 

[10] Harrington, H.L. (1995). Fostering reasoned decisions: Case-based pedagogy and the 

professional development of teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education. 11 (3), 203-214. 

[11] Kagan, D.M. (1992). Professional growth among preservice and beginning teachers. Review 

of Educational Research, 62(2), 129-169. 

[12] Katz, L.C. (1972). Developmental stages of preschool teachers. Elementary School Journal, 

73(1), 50-54. 

[13] Meister, D.G. & Melnick, S.A. (2002). From pre-service to in-service teaching: A national 

survey of beginning teachers’ concerns. 

[14] O’Connor, J. & Taylor, H.P. (1992). Understanding preservice and novice teachers’ concerns 

to improve teacher recruitment and retention. Teacher Education Quarterly, 19, 19-28. 

[15] Turley, S. & Wood, A.L. (2002). A Longitudinal Study of New Teacher Concerns: Induction 

in a District Consortium. Available at 

http:/tigersystem.net/aera2002/viewproposaltext.asp?propID=6619. 

87


High School Learners’ Attitudes, Level of Knowledge and Level 

of Discrimination towards Individuals Living with HIV/AIDS 

C. Strydom 

Lecturer, School for Psycho-Social Behavioural Sciences: Division Social Work, Potchefstroom 

Campus of the North-West University, South Africa. 

P. Podile 

Social Worker, Department of Social Development, 

North-West Province, South Africa. 

Abstract 

HIV/AIDS has increasingly become a problem in the world, but especially in South 

Africa. People living with HIV/AIDS find themselves in a serious predicament and face 

double jeopardy. They face death and while they are fighting for their lives, they are 

abused, ridiculed and maligned. They are being discriminated against, rejected and not 

treated with love, respect and dignity. 

It is believed that a battle against the AIDS epidemic cannot be won unless the 

level of awareness and commitment is raised to a point where the authorities and public 

at large realise that everyone must work together. The power to defeat the spread of 

HIV/AIDS lies in partnership with the youth, adults, business people and government. A 

supportive and enabling environment also needs to be created for those people living with 

HIV/AIDS. 

The aim of the study was to explore learners’ knowledge of HIV/AIDS and 

determine their attitudes regarding people living with HIV/AIDS. From the research 

findings, it was found that learners are knowledgeable about the general facts on the 

HIV/AIDS pandemic, but that their knowledge concerning certain aspects is limited to 

some extent, therefore it is deemed necessary to equip and empower them with more and 

relevant information. With regard to learners’ attitudes, it was found that learners have 

fair and positive attitudes towards people living with AIDS. 

It is recommended that these positive attitudes and fair knowledge of learners 

must be sustained. The most effective way to attain this is through education, and schools 

are the appropriate places to teach young people about HIV prevention. 

Introduction 

This article focuses on the knowledge of and attitudes of the high school learners concerning people 

living with HIV/AIDS. It especially examines the learners’ level of discrimination towards people 

living with the virus. The problem statement, the objectives of the study and the methodology will be 

dealt with. The findings of the study will be discussed according to the sections of the questionnaire. 

Finally, the article looks into intervention strategies in addressing the phenomenon. 

Problem statement 

HIV/AIDS is one of the greatest public health hazards or threats that is facing the whole world. 

According to Stine (1993:11), AIDS is the most dramatic, pervasive and tragic pandemic in recent 

88


history. South Africa is among those countries that are faced with the serious dilemma of the 

increasing rate of HIV/AIDS. In 2003 it was estimated that there were 4.69 million South Africans 

living with HIV/AIDS, more than in any other country in the world (Rehle & Shisana, 2003). Six 

hundred people die in South Africa every day due to HIV/AIDS (Anon 2003:5). AIDS has become the 

leading cause of death in South Africa, and it is estimated that 40% of all adult deaths were now due to 

AIDS (Dorrington et al., 2001). 

According to Anon (2003:4) and Stine (1993:4), HIV/AIDS today threatens the welfare and 

well-being of people throughout the world. It is expected that parents will die before their children, but 

because of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, it does not happen that way for thousands of parents. They are 

seeing their children die in the prime of life. Anon (2003: 1) further emphasizes that most of those 

living with HIV/AIDS are people in their economically active stages of life (15 to 49 years). Thus the 

HIV/AIDS epidemic is having a major impact on the youth. 

According to the North-West Health Training Manual (2003: 21), issued by the Department of 

Health, concerning the result of the HIV and Syphilis Sero-prevalence survey of woman attending 

public antenatal clinics in the North-West Province, HIV/AIDS continues to be one of the biggest 

public health problems facing this Province. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS is increasing at alarming 

rates. The HIV/AIDS prevalence continues to be high in urban areas compared to that in the rural 

areas. This survey was conducted in a rural area in the North-West. 

The focus of this research centres on the attitudes of the high school learners towards people 

living with HIV/AIDS. People living with HIV/AIDS find themselves in a serious predicament and 

face double jeopardy. They face death and while they are fighting for their lives, they face a number of 

problems. According to Stine (1993:346), people living with HIV/AIDS are still abused, ridiculed and 

maligned. They are not treated with love, respect and dignity as human beings once it becomes known 

that they are infected with the disease. Most members of the community will not dare touch or talk to a 

person with HIV/AIDS (Salehi, 2000:1). Anon (2000a:4) further elaborates by quoting a comment 

made by a 27 year old Indian man who stated that “Nobody will come near me, eat with me in the 

canteen, nobody will want to work with me, I am an outcast here”. 

According to Anon (2000b:1), HIV/AIDS stigma and discrimination remains to be an 

enormous barrier to fighting the HIV/AIDS epidemic effectively. Stigmatization leads to a feeling of 

withdrawal, guilt, shame, anger, depression and isolation (Stine, 1993:346). Fear of discrimination 

often prevents people from seeking treatment for AIDS or admitting their HIV status publicly 

(Brimlow, Cook & Seaton, 2003). Anon (2000a:2) supports this remark by indicating that, in 

December 1998, Gugu Dlamini was stoned to death by neighbours in her township near Durban in 

South Africa after speaking out openly on World AIDS Day about her HIV status. 

Anon (2000a: 2) points out that people with HIV or those suspected of having it may be turned 

away from health care services, employment, refused entry into foreign countries and in some cases 

even possibly be evicted from their homes by their families and rejected by friends and colleagues. 

Anon (2003:2) emphasizes that rejection by the families cause a stressful situation because family is 

regarded to be the primary and an important unit in a person’s life. 

The stigma attached to HIV/AIDS can extend to the next generation, placing an emotional 

burden on those left behind. Nzioka (2000) also states that families bereaved through AIDS have 

difficulty obtaining support (public sympathy and financial assistance) when planning funerals, and 

attendance at funerals is low. Anon (2000a:2) indicates that stigma and discrimination are often 

motivated by the need to blame and punish, and in extreme circumstances it can extend to acts of 

violence and murder. 

Stine (1993:350) emphasizes that the main difference between HIV/AIDS and other diseases is 

social discrimination. He emphasizes that society does not discriminate and reject those with cancer, 

diabetes, heart disease or any other health problems. Individuals in South Africa who lose a loved one 

to AIDS are not likely to receive the same amount of support and sympathy that they would receive if 

89


their loved one had died of more socially acceptable causes. Survivors may be forced to keep the 

nature of the death secret and to hide their own grief (Demmer, 2004:300). Anon (2001:12) emphasizes 

that some healthy parents discourage their children to play with children who are believed to have 

AIDS. Even those orphans lucky enough to receive schooling found that other children did not want to 

play with them, fearing that they will become infected. 

HIV/AIDS patients are considered to be less desirable and more responsible for their ill health. 

Also fuelling such responses are ignorance and lack of knowledge concerning HIV transmission. 

Society thinks that AIDS is exclusively caused by wrong sexual practices. People have become very 

judgmental and moralistic towards people living with AIDS (Anon, 2000b:3). 

According to the North-West Health Training Manual (2003:23), the aim of education is to 

change risk behaviour, especially sexual behaviour, in order to successfully combat the disease of 

AIDS. Only through intensive educational programmes can the fatal disease be successfully prevented 

(Stine, 1993:196). 

Anon (2000b:4) is of the opinion that no policy or law can combat HIV/AIDS-related 

discrimination on its own. The fear and prejudice that lies at the core of the HIV/AIDS discrimination 

needs to be tackled at community and national levels. A more enabling environment needs to be 

created to increase the visibility of people with HIV/AIDS as a normal part of any society. In future, 

the task is to confront the fear-based messages and biased social attitudes in order to reduce the 

discrimination and stigmatization of people who are living with HIV/AIDS. As society becomes more 

accepting of people living with HIV/AIDS, they will be more open and responsive to increased 

education and lifestyle changes. 

With regard to the study the researchers attempted to find an answer to the following question: 

What are learners’ knowledge of HIV/AIDS and their attitudes regarding people living with 

HIV/AIDS? 

Aims of the research 

The aim of this research was to gain insight into the learner’s level of knowledge and level of 

discrimination towards individuals with HIV/AIDS by means of a literature and empirical study. 

Theoritical assumption 

High school learners have fair knowledge of HIV/AIDS, but tend to have negative attitudes towards 

people living with HIV/AIDS. 

Research methodology 

According to Neuman (1997:38), methodology refers to the techniques that a particular discipline uses 

to manipulate data and to acquire knowledge. The method of research consists of a literature study and 

an empirical survey. 


The data, which was utilized for a systematic library search, was a Repertoire of South African 

Journals, Social Work Abstracts and Social Sciences Indexes. There are a considerable number of 

books, journals and publications on HIV/AIDS, both nationally and internationally. In the literature 

review, a study was made of the knowledge of high school learners on HIV/AIDS. Previous studies 

(Kelly et al., 2002:20; Strydom, 2002:191; Strydom, 2003:59-72) indicated that young people are well 

informed concerning the most basic facts about HIV/AIDS. The attitudes of learners towards people 

living with HIV/AIDS were also investigated in order to determine the ways in which they treat these 

people. The literature (Diagle et al.,1999:273; Kelly et al.,2002:24: Marjorie, 1991:20) showed that 

people living with HIV/AIDS are already suffering, and do not want the additional burden of being 

rejected and discriminated against. 

90


Empirical study 

1.) Research design 

According to Grinnell (1993:219), a research design is a plan which includes every aspect of a 

proposed research study from the conceptualization of the problem right through to the dissemination 

of findings. The research design that the researcher used is the exploratory design. De Vos et al., 

(1998:240) are of the opinion that the purpose of the exploratory design is to gain insight into a 

situation, phenomenon, community or person. 

The aim was to explore the learners’ knowledge of HIV/AIDS and their attitudes towards 

people living with HIV/AIDS. Although much has been written on HIV/AIDS, limited research has 

been done on learners’ attitudes regarding people living with HIV/AIDS. 

2.) Sampling 

For purposes of this study, a sample was drawn. According to De Vos et al. (1998:240), a sample is a 

small portion of the total set of the objects, events or persons that together comprise the subject of this 

study. In the study, the systematic type of sample was used. In this type of sample, only the first case is 

selected randomly and all the subsequent cases are selected according to a particular interval (De Vos 

et al., 1998:205). 

South Africa comprises of nine provinces. The focus of the study was on the North-West 

Province, as the sample was drawn from the two high schools Kebalepile and Letsatsing in the 

Mafikeng area. According to Grinnell and Williams (1990:127), a sample size of 10% of the 

population is sufficient to provide reasonable control over sampling error. For this study, the 

population size (two schools) was 1000 learners. Thus 140 learners, a sample of 14% were involved in 

the study. The sample was drawn from the Grade ten (10) learners, aged 15-17 years, boys and girls, 

because it was expected that their knowledge and attitudes would be representative of the high school 

learners. At each school 70 of these learners were selected. The first name on the alphabetically class 

list of all the grade ten learners was selected and then every second name. 

3.) Measuring instrument 

In the study, a questionnaire was used as the instrument for collecting data. The questionnaire was selfdeveloped 

after having studied the similar questionnaires in Strydom (2002:59-72) and Strydom 

(2003:320). According to the New South African Dictionary of Social Work (1995:51), a questionnaire 

is a set of questions on a form that is completed by the respondents in respect of a research project. 

There are different types of questionnaires such as the personal, the telephonic, the hand-delivered, the 

group-administered and the mail questionnaire. In this research, the group-administered questionnaire 

was used, which means that the questionnaires were administered to the learners in group form. 

Strydom (1999:123) feels that administrating the questionnaires in a group has the following 

advantages, namely the researcher is at hand to explain any questions that might be unclear, the 

response rate is higher and it provides a personal touch, which is lacking in the mailed survey. A 

disadvantage can be various biases, particularly in classroom settings. 

4.) Procedure 

The researcher followed the following prescribed procedure during the study: 

• Consulted with principals of the two selected high schools and obtained their permission. 

• Obtained permission from the parents by designing a consent form that they signed to allow 

their children to participate in the study. 

• The life skills educators at the two high schools assisted during the distribution and collection 

process of the consent forms. 

• Tested the questionnaire with four (4) other children who were not included in the sample. The 

91


intention was to maximize the level of reliability and validity of instruments. During the pilot 

period it was found that the instrument was reliable, therefore no modifications were made. 

• The questionnaires were distributed and completed in the life skills classes in the presence of 

one of the researchers. 

• The questionnaires were completed in English, but one of the researchers was at hand to 

translate, as the learners’ mother language was Tswana. 

5.) Ethical aspects 

According to Grasso and Epstein (1992:118), ethics are those principles that are intended to define the 

rights and responsibilities of the researcher and practitioners in social work in their relationship with 

one other and with other parties including employers, research subjects, clients and students. 

In the study, the following ethical aspects were considered: 

• Harm to respondents: According to De Vos et al. (1998:64), subjects can be harmed in a 

physical or emotional manner. In the study the researcher thoroughly informed the respondents 

beforehand as to the purpose and nature of the investigation. 

• Informed consent: In the study, the issue of informed consent by the learners as well as their 

parents was regarded to be of importance. A consent form in which the aims of the study was 

explained, was developed and distributed to the parents of the participants. 

• Voluntary participation: In the study, respondents were not forced to participate. The 

participants were regarded to be volunteers. 

• Confidentiality: In the study, the issue of confidentiality was considered with the intension of 

protecting the privacy of the respondents. All the information that deserved to be treated with 

confidentiality was indeed treated accordingly. The questionnaire also stated that the 

questionnaire would be completed anonymously. 

6. Data analysis 

The Statistical Consultation Services of the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University 

analysed the data. 

Results 

The empirical data was organized according to the sections of the questionnaire and the data will be 

discussed as follows: 

1. Identifying particulars 

1.1 Gender of respondents 

Of the total respondents, 53 (37,86%) were male and 87 (62,14 %) female. The ratio of male to female 

is more or less the same for the two schools, which means that the responses were representative of the 

universe, regarding the gender. 

1.2 Age of respondents 

The study indicates that, of the total number of participants, 45 (32,37%) were aged 15, 55 (39,57%) 

were 16 years and 39 (28,06%) were 17 years of age. This is the national average age of grade ten 

learners. NB: Number of missing value is 1 (did not answer the question) 

1.3 Number of respondents 

Of the total sample, 70 (50,00%) of the learners were from Kepalepile High School and 70 (50,00 %) 

were from Letsatsing High School. 

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1.4 Home language 

The study indicates that, of the total population, 119 (86,23%) of the participants were Tswanaspeaking, 

9 (6,52%) were Sotho-speaking, 9 (6,52%) were Xhosa-speaking and 1 (0.72%) was 

English-speaking. Four of the official languages were represented in the sample with most of the 

participants coming from the Tswana–speaking community. In the North-West Province, the Tswanaspeaking 

group was the largest language group. NB: Number of missing value is 2 (did not answer the 

question) 

1.5 Ethnic group 

Of the total, 136 (97,14%) participants were black and 4 (2,86%) were from other ethnic groups. This 

could be expected as the two schools are situated in black communities. 

2. Participants’ knowledge regarding hiv/ aids 

Participants had to answer 15 questions by choosing between True, False or Uncertain. In this section 

Uncertain will be regarded as an incorrect response. The data is presented by means of the following 

table: 

Table 1 

Statement Correct 

Answers 

93 

Wrong 

Answers 

A vaccine is available 29,69% 70,31% 

AIDS makes the body very weak 98,56% 1,44% 

Anyone can get HIV 61,76% 38,24% 

AIDS has no cure 95,68% 4,32% 

Person may pass on HI-virus even though he/she has no 

symptoms of HIV/AIDS 

40,74% 59,26% 

A condom is 100% effective against infection 61,59% 38,41% 

Can contract HIV by kissing and hugging 96,43% 3,57% 

Only poor people contract HIV 100,00% 0% 

Can be at risk by eating meals prepared by an HIVinfected 

person 

82,48% 17,52% 

Can contract AIDS from a public toilet 82,73% 17,26% 

People living with HIV/AIDS are entitled to all the basic 

rights 

57,97% 42,03% 

Okay to keep health status of HIV-infected person 

confidential 

63,43% 36,57% 

Can contract HIV infection by sharing drug needles 86,43% 13,57% 

HIV-infected people are promiscuous 56,62% 43,38% 

HIV-infected people deserve to be isolated from others 72,86% 27,14% 

If percentages of correct answers are considered, it appears as if the participants’ knowledge regarding 

HIV/AIDS is relatively good. This could be misleading because it still leaves a wide margin of 

ignorance. Participants scored high on knowledge about the ways in which HIV/AIDS was 

transmitted, because this type of information is made readily available by the media, schools, clinics


and other organisations. Previous studies (Kelly et al., 2002:20; Stremlau & Nkosi, 2001:19; Strydom, 

2002:191; Strydom, 2003:59-72) also indicated that young people are informed concerning the most 

basic facts about HIV/AIDS. Participants scored low on issues that were not general knowledge, for 

example the following statements: 

• A vaccine is available. 

• A person may pass on the HI-virus even though he/she has no symptoms of HIV/AIDS. 

3. Participants’ attitudes towards hiv/aids 

In this section, respondents had to answer 10 questions to determine the learners’ attitudes towards 

HIV/AIDS victims. The 10 questions will be stated and followed by the responses of participants. 

Table 2 

STATEMENT AGREE DISAGREE UNCERTAIN 

HIV/AIDS victims should be marked 

so that they can be easily recognized 

19 (13,67%) 111 (79,86%) 9 (6,47%) 

and identified. 

From the table above, 19 of the learners agree that people with HIV/AIDS should be marked, 111 

disagree with the statement and 9 are uncertain. NB: Number of missing value is 1. The large 

percentage illustrates that learners have positive attitudes towards HIV/AIDS victims, as they do not 

want the victims to be discriminated against. Strydom (2003:63) found in his study that 58,7% learners 

were against compiling a list of HIV/AIDS victims. 

STATEMENT Stigmatization 

and 

discrimination 

HIV/AIDS victims 

deserve to be stigmatized 

and discriminated against, 

to be isolated and rejected 

or to be treated with love 

and respect. 

Table 3 

Isolation 

and 

rejection 

94 

Love and 

respect 

Uncertain 

7 (5, 00%) 7 (5,00%) 122(87,14%) 4 (2,86%) 

The table above illustrates that the majority of the learners feel that HIV/AIDS people are to be treated 

with love and respect. In other words, learners do not want the HIV/AIDS victims to be ill-treated.


Table 4 

STATEMENT AGREE DISAGREE UNCERTAIN 

People with HIV/AIDS are not to be 

allowed to attend school or work 

because of the danger of infecting 

others. 

7 (5,00%) 128 (91,43%) 5 (3,57%) 

It is obvious from the above table that the overwhelming majority believes that HIV/AIDS victims are 

entitled to attend school or work. This indicates that they do not discriminate against people with 

HIV/AIDS. Strydom (2003:63) also found in his research that 64,1% indicated that HIV-infected 

persons should be allowed to attend school. 

STATEMENT FEAR BEING 

INFECTED 

What will you do if you have to 

share the same bedroom with an 

HIV-infected person? 

Table 5 

95 

ACCEPT THAT 

PERSON 

UNCERTAIN 

24 (17,39%) 103 (74,64%) 11 (7,97%) 

NB: Number of missing value is 2. From the table above, it is clear that the majority of the learners 

said that they would accept that person. In other words, most learners have a positive attitude towards 

HIV/AIDS victims as they are prepared to share a bedroom with the infected person. 

• Reaction if a person is HIV/AIDS positive 

The respondents were asked what they would do if they knew that a person was HIV/AIDS positive. 

Fourty seven (33,57%) of the learners said that they would treat the information as confidential, 89 

(63,57%) said that they would ask his/her permission first before informing others, while 4 (2,86%) 

said that they would not associate with him or her. These figures show that the majority of the learners 

would respect such a person’s feelings. 

• Reaction of family members on hearing one of the members are positive 

The majority of the participants 131 (93,58%) said that other family members should accept and 

support that person, 1 (0,71%) said that other family members should reject that person, 1 (0,71%) said 

that other family members should isolate that person, and 7 (5,00%) were uncertain. The majority of 

learners felt that HIV/AIDS victims should be treated well by their families, which indicates the 

learners’ sympathy towards people living with HIV/AIDS. Marjorie (1991:20) also supports this 

finding. She emphasizes that HIV/AIDS people deserve everyone’s care and concern. 

• Reaction on hearing you are HIV positive 

Thirteen (9,35%) of the learners said that they would commit suicide, 2 (2,16%) said that they would 

deny it, 5 (3,60%) said that they would isolate themselves from others, 114 (82,01%) said that they 

would accept it, and 4 (2,88%) were uncertain. NB: Number of missing value is 2. The 114 learners 

who said that they would accept it, illustrates that learners think that there is hope for HIV-infected 

people. In other words, it is not a death sentence when you are diagnosed HIV positive. They are aware 

of positive ways in which they can react when they are infected with the disease. 

• Willingness to associate with or date an HIV/AIDS infected person 

Ninety-four (67,14%) said that they were willing to associate with or date an HIV/AIDS-infected 

person, 22 (15,72%) said that they were not willing to associate with or date an HIV/AIDS-infected


person, while 24 (17,14%) were uncertain. The 94 learners illustrates that learners do not have negative 

attitudes towards HIV/AIDS victims as they were willing to associate with or date them. Strydom 

(2003:65) found in his research that 64,10% of the high school learners were willing to be friends with 

HIV-infected people. 

• Willingness to receive medical treatment from HIV-positive health officer 

Eighty-three (59,29%) of the learners said that they were prepared to be treated by an HIV positive 

health officer, 25 (17,86%) of the learners said that they feared being treated by an HIV positive health 

officer, 17 (12,14%) of the learners said that they feared infection, while 15 (10,71%) of the learners 

were uncertain. The high percentage indicates that learners do have positive attitudes towards people 

with HIV/AIDS as they are prepared to receive treatment without fearing infection. 

• Measures to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS 

Eighty-four (60,00%) of the learners said that using condoms is a good way to prevent the spread of 

HIV/AIDS, 80 (57,14%) supported educational programmes 73 (52,14)% supported the idea of regular 

blood tests, while 3 (2,14%) of learners said that the isolation of an HIV/AIDS person is a good way to 

prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS. In this question the percentage is more than 100% because learners 

could have marked more than one answer. The majority of the respondents supported the use of 

condoms, educational programmes and regular blood tests. Strydom (2003:39) also found in his study 

that using condoms was supported by a large number of respondents, while Naidoo (1994) mentions 

that 84,3% of the respondents in his study felt that using a condom during sex lowers the risk of 

contracting HIV/AIDS. The literature further supports the need for more information, knowledge and 

education on HIV/AIDS (Naidoo, 1994; South African Department of Health, 1997). 

Discussion 

From the research findings, it is obvious that most of the high school learners are knowledgeable about 

the basic facts of HIV/AIDS. This is also supported by the literature of Kelly et al. (2002:20) and 

Coughlan et al. (1996:255) when they indicate that young people are informed concerning most 

important facts about HIV. This is due to the fact that high school learners receive education on HIV 

at schools. 

However, the research findings also indicate that learners’ knowledge on aspects which are not 

of common knowledge is limited to some extent. Strydom (2002:191) found in her study that young 

people scored high on knowledge concerning the ways in which HIV/AIDS was transmitted, but low 

on issues that were not general knowledge. 

With regard to the attitudes of learners, the findings indicate that the learners are sympathetic 

towards people who are infected with HIV. Most of the learners indicate that they did not discriminate 

against people infected with HIV. Rankin and Strydom (2003:45) also found in their study that young 

people were sympathetic towards people living with AIDS, and would not like them to be 

discriminated against. In his study amongst learners at secondary schools in North-West, Strydom 

(2003:63-64) found that 73,6% of the learners felt sorry for people with AIDS. Uys et al. (2005:20) 

also found in their research that acceptance of people living with AIDS was increasing in some 

communities. 

This is contrary to the findings of other studies that have found a great deal of stigmatization. 

Kelly et al. (2002:24) indicate that children’s attitude towards people living with AIDS are more 

negative than that of older counterparts. They further emphasize that people living with HIV/AIDS 

tend to report high levels of negative attitudes that do not coincide with self-reported attitudes of young 

people. One way of accounting for this is that even isolated incidents can impact strongly on people 

living with HIV/AIDS and seemingly small incidents such as someone hesitating to drink from the 

same cup, or someone using rubber gloves unnecessarily, can be hurtful and rejecting. 

According to Marjorie (1991:20), people with HIV/AIDS have suffered discrimination and 

negative ill treatment as children with AIDS have been expelled from school, and friends and 

neighbours have shunned their families. Marjorie(1991:21) elaborates that people living with 

96


HIV/AIDS have suffered discrimination in employment and housing and have been refused insurance 

benefits. Diagle et al., (1999:273) are of the opinion that patients with a disease such as cancer most 

likely would receive both instrumental and affective support from family members. They further 

elaborate by indicating that the situation is reversed with HIV/AIDS: “you will be outcast, hardly get 

visits, no chicken soup, no hugging, touching. They will kind of expect the patient with AIDS to 

apologies to the family for bringing such a shame to the family for leading such a life”. According to 

Diagle et al. (1999: 273), a diagnosis of HIV/AIDS is considered to be very bad because the person 

will be cast out by his/her very own family. 

The theoretical assumption of the researchers was that high school learners tend to have 

negative attitudes towards people living with HIV/AIDS, but based on the research findings, this was 

not proven. This might be because of the fact that learners are encouraged to take good care of the 

AIDS sufferers at schools. The learners are aware that the HIV/AIDS victims deserve the care and 

concern of everyone. They are aware of the fundamental basic rights that are stipulated by the South 

African Constitution, which emphasize that every person is entitled to be treated with respect, love and 

dignity. Therefore this indicates that the learners are abiding by and complying with the rules of the 

Constitution. Whiteside and Sunter (2000:122) support this by indicating that in 1997 the Interministerial 

Committee was formed and a major public awareness campaign took place. The main event 

that year was the address to the nation by President Mbeki on 9 October. In it, he confronted the South 

Africans with the reality of the epidemic and called for sectors to pledge themselves to the Partnership 

Against AIDS. Various sectors (business and labour, youth and women, churches and faith 

communities, sports and entertainment) immediately stepped forward to articulate their commitment. 

Since then, events such as World AIDS Day and Condom Week have become focal points for a wide 

range of awareness activities. Famous political leaders, such as Nelson Mandela and Mango Sotho 

Buthelezi have admitted in the open that they have lost children through AIDS. Also based on the 

number of activities and awareness campaigns, which are being carried out with the aim of 

empowering and educating people about the pandemic, this might contribute to the fair treatment of 

and acceptable behaviour towards people living with HIV/AIDS. If a proper strategy is to be followed, 

HIV will have to be brought ‘out of the closet’, be discussed openly and people living with HIV/AIDS 

will have to talk more freely on the consequences of the illness and how to prevent it (Poindexter & 

Linsk, 1999:46-61). Uys et al. (2005:20) also feel that specific interventions have to be designed, based 

on a thorough understanding of the nature of HIV/AIDS stigma. 

Whiteside and Sunter (2000:124) further indicated that, in 1995, efforts were made to identify 

key priorities which were embraced by the Government and many NGOs and which included the 

following: life skills programmes targeted at the youth, the use of mass communication to popularize 

key prevention concepts, appropriate treatment and management of clients seeking treatment for STDs, 

increase access to barrier methods such as condoms and the promotion of appropriate care and support. 

According to Molewa, latest statistics in the North-West show a downward trend of HIVinfections 

among young people, especially in the under-24 age group. Based on these figures, she feels 

that the province’s awareness and prevention campaigns amongst young people are bearing fruit. She 

said that programmes which take the fight against HIV to schools decisively and fundamentally shift 

the balance of power “in our favour as we battle to defeat this scourge” (Molewa, 2004:5). The 

research also indicates that efforts to promote and increase awareness among members of the 

community, especially among the youths, are being effective. 

Conclusion 

The researchers arrived at the following conclusions: 

• Learners seemed particularly interested in participating in the study as it enabled them to vent 

their views, perspectives and concerns with regard to the epidemic. 

• From the responses to a few questions, such as whether people living with AIDS should be 

97


marked so that they can be easily recognized and identified, and whether people with 

HIV/AIDS should be allowed to attend school or work, it was clear that most of the learners 

sympathized with the victims. 

• The analyses of the research findings indicated that learners have positive attitudes towards 

people living with HIV/AIDS and would not like them to be ill-treated and discriminated 

against. 

• Learners seemed knowledgeable regarding the general information pertaining to the HIV/AIDS 

phenomenon. However, there are some areas in which their level of knowledge was perceived 

to be limited. 


On the basis of the literature and empirical study undertaken, the researchers would like to make the 

following recommendations: 

• It is recommended that these supportive, caring and positive attitudes that prevail amongst 

learners need to be motivated and encouraged. 

• It is recommended that, since the schools are the primary socializing influence for the children; 

they are to continue with the efforts of empowering and equipping school learners with the 

necessary information the learners deserve to know. 

• To sustain this relevant knowledge and the positive attitudes that learners posses regarding the 

HIV/AIDS epidemic, it is recommended that more relevant and factual information regarding 

the epidemic be made more accessible to learners. 

• It is recommended that more HIV/AIDS programmes be developed in respect of the young 

generation or people to increase awareness, communicate the correct knowledge and encourage 

subsequent behavioural change. 

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rousseau. 

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The Child Naming Game amongst the Xhosas 

Nombulelo I. Monoana 

University of Transkei 

Faculty of Education 

monoana@yahoo.com 

Abstract 

This paper reports on the findings of a study that looked at the various reasons Xhosa 

Speakers have to give certain names to their children at birth. The findings of the study 

indicate that child naming, generally speaking, is considered a very important activity. The 

naming of persons is often intimately linked to the culture of people. Another important 

finding is that Xhosa first names are usually semantically transparent. However, particular 

naming conventions are also apparent. The reasons include wishes and prayers that the 

parents have for their children in the future and also the feelings parents had prior to child 

birth as well as during the birth of the child. 

Deluzian, H.E (1996) reminds us that at one time anthropologists thought that some groups of people 

were so “primitive” and unorganised that they did not use names. However, we now know that the 

anthrops were mistaken and that the idea came about because research fieldworkers were not able to 

get inside the minds of the people well enough to understand the customs and taboos that required that 

the names be kept secret from strangers. The truth is that names are a part of every culture and that they 

are of enormous importance both to the people who receive names as well as the society that gives the 

name/s. This is true for Xhosas as well. 

Among the Xhosas naming, generally speaking, is considered an important activity. The 

naming of persons is often intimately linked to the culture of the Xhosas. Among the Xhosas, names 

are not only given to the children but also to bride when the sons get married. Perhaps, this is due to 

the fact that the brides are regarded as new children to the family when they come. This article, 

however, is about child naming amongst the Xhosas. 

There is a great deal of differences in from one culture to another in how names are given. 

Amongst most people names are determined according to very definite and specific rules. Generally, in 

cultures with a keen sense of ancestry children get their names from the totems and family trees of their 

parents. In some cultures, names are taken from events that happen during the pregnancy of the mother, 

or shortly before or after the birth of a child and in others names are derived through magic and 

incantation. 

In the process of giving names it becomes important for the givers to bear in mind that without 

a name, as far as the society is concerned, one would be nobody. Hathurani, M.A.M (2001) reminds us 

that it is the infant’s vested right to be honoured with a good name. This then indicates that when 

choosing a name for the child, that should be done with the intention that the child will be blessed with 

the barakah of that name. When a name is attached to a person certain specific forms of intelligence 

are stimulated. It is conscious forces that are combined to create a complete person one can identify. 

Without a name, one has no connection to one’s true identity. In a similar vein, Neethling, S.J. (1994) 

contends that it is a common practice for parents to embody in the name the expectations they might 

have for that child in the future. As the child grows up, the name serves as an inspiration to him. 

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It is important to give and keep a good name since names affect/ may affect the personality of 

the individual. The most important aspect of personality affected by names is self-concept. Selfconcept 

develops as children develop, and is learnt from the verbal and non-verbal messages sent by 

significant people in the children’s lives. Parents are the most important message senders, but as 

children mature and become more and more independent, the messages of teachers, classmates and 

other people all contribute to their developing concepts of self. A person’s name has an impact on the 

process of building a self-concept because the name helps one to determine the messages that other 

people send the child. Research has established that certain names are generally considered desirable 

in our culture and have positive feelings associated with them. This, though, is also true for other 

names that are looked upon as being undesirable and carry negative associations. Smith, E.C (1967) 

contends that there appears to be a tendency for individuals who dislike their first names to have less 

affirmative attitude towards themselves than those who like their first names. 

Brender as cited in Smith, E.C (1967) offers several hypotheses about the significance of the 

names parents chose for their children. According to Brender, family tradition is an important factor in 

the names that the children receive. One of the most common uses of traditional names is to name a 

son after a father and then use JUNIOR as part of the son'’ name. However, there are some practical 

problems in differentiating between the father and son, especially if both father and son are prominent. 

Another naming pattern which reflects the personalities of the parents is the use of names that 

are highly fashionable and popular. those that are commonly referred to as fad names.Examples in this 

category include the use of names such as Brenda (Brenda Fassie) and many others. 

Studies of early American child naming indicate that parents invested a great deal of thought 

into naming their children, and that their choices reflected attitudes about themselves and that the 

underlying values of their society. Smith, E.C (1967) has observed that 90% of first born daughters and 

79% of first born sons an the 17 th Century received either the names of either their parents or grand 

parents, thus parent centred naming, virtually assuming that their names will be kept in the generations 

to come. Although the focus on first born children probably accentuates the importance of parent and 

grandparent centred naming, Smith remarks that there has been a shift from parent centred naming to 

familial names. Parents who relied on familial names saw their children more as members of lineage or 

family and that later conceptualisation of children was associated with the society. 

On the other hand, child naming can be seen as one of the most frustrating tasks in becoming a 

parent. This, perhaps, holds for those parents who adopt children internationally. Ball-Gisch (1998) 

asserts that adopted children, unlike biological children, come to the foster parents with their own 

culture, heritage and a name that the foster parents must come to terms with, in one way or another. 

Apparently, not much research has been done on names in the context of African languages, 

generally, and Xhosa names particularly. However, Neethling, S.J. contends that African names are 

gorgeous, charming, melodic even to the ears of the English speaking. In Africa the birth of a child is 

an event of great importance. Great significance is attached to the naming of the child. The hopes of 

the ancestors, the status of the family, current occurrences, celestial events, expectations, wishes, 

prayers, feelings etc determine the names that are given to children at birth. It is also common that a 

child is given a name before birth. 

Of the five participants that were used in the study, four were females, four were married and 

all of them were born in the fifties. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data. One can 

assume that the data collected can be expanded in all respects should more data be available and also 

that there could be new categories of reasons behind giving a particular name to a child. 

Ndimande, N (19980 cites Olaniyan, R who observes that Africans are not easily detached from 

their history and culture. And as such preserve their history and culture in many different ways. Xhosa 

names are one of those sources that carry the historical imperatives of the Xhosas, their religion and the 

relationships among them. Furthering her argument, Ndimande, N (1998) cites Wa’Thiongo 919940 

who acknowledges that language embraces the culture of the people, it is a mirror of the society that 

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shows how people live. This is true for Xhosas as well. 

The data collected revealed that Xhosas have various reasons for which they give names to their 

children. One observation made was that Xhosas find and give names to retain the name of the 

prominent figures in the clan either the father, paternal grandfather or forefather. Such naming 

practises are common amongst the royal families or clans. For example Zwangendaba* of the Hlubis, 

Madzikane* of the Bacas and Sakhile where the father’s name is Sakhiwo and because the daughtersin-law 

(oomakoti) are not allowed to call the names of their brothers-in-law the child had to be named 

as such so as to retain the father’s name. The subjects indicated that it is only the grandfathers who can 

give such names and also that such names can only be given to male children, as they are the ones who 

will remain in the family for the rest of their lives. Thus Xhosa names also reflect cultural attitudes 

within the social context on the paternal. 

Another observation that was made was that Xhosa first names reflect the quality of “ubuntu” 

that is practised in the family. Ubuntu is characterized by respect, discipline, patience, giving 

compassion, caring, cultural awareness etc. Names in this category include [Tembeka (Thembekile), 

Zoliswa (Zola, Zolani),Lulama] (for both sexes) and Thobela]*. With the names in this category it is 

important to note that a single name can be given to both sexes. The only difference will be in the 

pronunciation. In some instances the change would be in the last syllable. 

Another set of names indicated that where children are born before marriage, their names would 

be an embodiment of a wish that the grandmother had for the child. In all such cases the grandmother 

named such children. The reason given for the fact that only grandmothers gave names to such 

children was that amongst the Xhosas it used to be a taboo for girls to have sex before marriage, let 

alone having children. However, when it has happened the grandparents have nothing else to do but 

accept the child and then instead name him accordingly.. Names in this category included [Xolisa, 

Luncedo, Sixolise, Samkelo, and Yamkela]*. Thus these children were either seen as tokens of peace 

or hope. 

Xhosas belong to a patriarchal family system. This was revealed by who named the children in 

the fourth category of names that came out of the data. These are those who are born of married 

couples. This set indicated that names were given either to express satisfaction or gratitude, or to 

announce the arrival of a son/daughter to add on to the existing number in the family. What is 

interesting to note here is that, unlike the illegal children, here the paternal extended family members 

would give a name to the child. As a result one will notice that it is common for such Xhosa children to 

have more than one first names. Examples in this category include: Koliwe* (where the father in law 

was satisfied with the daughter-in-law that was brought home by the son), Azile, Afikile, Akhona, 

Andisiwe]* (where either the father, grandfather or aunt was glad that there was an addition of either a 

boy or a girl in the family, Thabile (because there was this child, a boy again and Pumeza* where the 

wish of the parents was fulfilled (that of having a child). 

It also came out from the data that another reason for giving certain names to “second born” 

children were the events that occurred before the birth of that child. For example Vuyolwethu, 

Sinovuyo and Nobubele]* are all second (third) born in their families but because the real second born 

passed away at a very early age. The arrival of the child would therefore be seen as God’s response to 

ease the pain experienced by the parents due to the loss of the other child. 

Brender as cited by Smith, E.C.(1967) indicates that another naming pattern that refers to 

personalities of the parents is the use of names of popular society figures at the time of birth of the 

child . Such names include Brenda, Anita and Dan. The first two are related to the singers Brenda 

Fassie and Anita Baker whilst the owner of the last one was born at the time when “Iyakwa nguDan” 

was shown on SABC 1 at that time. 

Although the focus of this paper was not to look at who names the child, it is, perhaps, 

important to mention that amongst the Xhosas child naming is not everybody’s privilege. Where 

children are born of married couples, only the paternal grand parents or father would be the first one to 

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give the child a name. Other members of the paternal extended family would follow and give the child 

a name. 

Thus the reasons given for Xhosas to give their children certain names included an embodiment 

of the cultural values, wishes, prayers, feelings, requests, happenings before or after and even during 

the birth of the child and also to retain the names of prominent figures in the family. What became 

clear was that Xhosas do not just give names for the sake of giving names but do so for a number of 

special and specific reasons as mentioned above. It is the researcher’s hope that the above information 

may kindle some interest in this area of research. 

Appendix I 

CATEGORY A : NAMES GIVEN TO RETAIN THE PARTENAL 

PROMINENT FIGURES IN THE CLAN/FAMILY 

ZWANGENDABA Was the chief of the Hlubis 

MADZIKANE This was the Baca Chief who ran from Tshaka 

SAKHILE The father is Sakhiwo but because the daughters-in-law would not call 

their brother-in-law’s name the child was called Sakhile 

CATEGORY B: NAMES GIVEN TO PROMOTE THE CONCEPT OF 

UBUNTU. 

Thembekile 

Thembeka 

Be trustworthy 

Thobeka Be humble 

Thobekile Be humble 

Thobela Respect elders/ elderly people 

Thozama Not to be arrogant 

Zola Be cool and humble 

Lulama Be meek 

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CATEGORY C : NAMES GIVEN TO CHILDREN BORN BEFORE 

MARRIAGE – AS AN EMBODIMENT OF A WISH 

Xolisa Console Us 

Sixolise Console Us 

Yamkela Accept what the Lord has given you 

Samkela Accepted gift 

Luncedo Be helpful to this family 

CATEGORY D : NAMES GIVEN TO CHILDREN BORN TO MARRIED 

COUPLES AS AN INDICATION OF A WISH, SATISFACTION, 

HAPPINESS, etc. 

KOLIWE (satisfied) Grandfather satisfied with the daughter-in-law 

brought home by the son. 

AZILE (Boys have come) announcing arrival of boys in the family. 

Andisiwe Increased number of boys in the family 

Thabile Glad that there was this child, a boy again. 

Akhona Boys or girls are present 

CATEGORY E : NAMES GIVEN TO 2 nd (third) BORN CHILDREN IN 

RELATION TO EVENTS PRIOR OR DURING THEIR 

BIRTH. 

Vuyolwethu : Our Joy, mother had a miscarriage and that this girl 

came to fill the gap left by the other one called for the use of Vuyolwethu. 

Nobubele : The Lord is kind, The mother had given birth to a 

girl who passed away at the age of 2 months but then 

because the Lord is ever kind another girl was born to the family. 

Sinovuyo : We are happy that you are alive – The mother had 

To undergo a caeserian section operation but then the 

daughter was alive and well and the family was and is 

still happy about that. 

CATEGORY F : NAMES OF FIGURES PROMINENT AT THE TIME OF 

BIRTH OF THE CHILD 

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Making Peace through the Integrated Science Curruculum: A 

Case Study of the Nigerian Junior Secondary School 

Francisca Aladejana and Anthony Aladejana 

Faculty of Education 



Abstract 

If peace is working and living together without violence, then there is the need to address 

science, the knowledge that produces most of the instruments of violence. This study 

examined the extent to which the integrated science curriculum of the junior secondary 

school (JSS) can be training the mind of the emotions of peace and as a tool to address the 

causes and impact of violence and conflicts. The curriculum content was analyzed using 

nine questions for factors, which can in any way engender peace. Some identified factors 

evident from the analysis are: nation wide cooperation among all the students; raising the 

scientific level of all partners; providing answers to some issues that are potential causes of 

conflict and violence; removal of disparity between the privileged and unprivileged; and 

creating awareness of the damage that arms can do. The implications of these findings are 

discussed in relation to the review of the philosophy, objectives and content of the JSS 

curriculum. 

Introduction 

Peace has been variously described. According to Lasonen (2004), the term peace implies the absence 

of conflict and quarrel, the enjoyment of security, well being and harmony. Thus, peace is not just the 

absence of war or armed conflict. It is not a passive but an active concept that involves the promotion 

of many activities that can create an environment in which peace is sustained and conflict that may 

disturb peace is prevented. Such an environment is possible when not only the country is at peace, but 

there is peace in the individual, in the family and in the local community (Chakrabarti and Bhargava, 

2004). 

Peace can indeed be achieved in a peaceful way. This way can encompass various activities 

like: dialogue, ensuring that all categories of people are heard, recognising the diversity of people and 

embracing unity in diversity; just distribution of resources and power, imbibing tolerance and equality 

and generally by creating a culture of peace in our values, attitudes, traditions, and behaviour. 

There are various factors that can lead to conflict and disturb peace. Aladejana and Aladejana 

(2003) identified 19 factors amongst which are: differences in culture, unemployment, poverty, 

intolerance, unequal opportunities, lack of education of the youths and communication gap/lack of 

dialogue. Chakrabarti and Bhargava (2004) identified various factors that have led to conflict that has 

distrusted peace in the past to include: monopoly over knowledge which has led to the exploitation of 

the uneducated by the educated; technological disparities, dictatorship, existence of disparities in the 

provision of basic requirements; selfishness and lack of cooperation, lack of scientific temper; 

environmental considerations and genetic factors. 

It is thus seen that justice and fairness are prior to peace, for without these there can be no lasting 

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peace. According to Mason (2001), the ethics and values that are being promoted must accord respect 

to all. Also our institutions and practices should be arranged to maximize the life chances of all. 

Education can achieve this purpose. Education is the most effective means that a society possesses for 

confronting the challenges of the future. It is the culture, which each generation purposely gives to 

those who are to be its successors in order to qualify them at least for keeping up and if possible 

improving on what has been attained. 

According to Page (2004), philosophical foundations of peace education can be explored in the ethics 

of virtue, consequentialism, aesthetics, conservative politics and care. Each of these composes a 

significant element of peace education although ultimately its solid basis can only be established 

through an integrative approach. Education and training are underpinned by certain stated aims and 

objectives which reflect the good and desirable things that educating and training people are intended 

to achieve. This is because education is meant to provide for the common good and promoting a 

culture of peace is one major way of realizing this common good. 

Any education that promotes a culture of peace must be based on some fundamental principles 

amongst which are: efforts to meet the environmental needs of the present and future generations; 

respect for and promotion of equal right of and opportunities for all; respect for and promotion of the 

rights of every one to freedom of expression, opinion and information (Lasonen, 2004). According to 

Article 9 of the Declaration of the United Nations (2000), education plays significant roles in 

promoting and ensuring peace. Specifically, it recommends ensuring that children benefit from 

education on values, attitudes and modes of behaviour that will enable them to resolve any dispute 

peacefully. It also encourages the revision of educational curricula. 

There is therefore the need to incorporate peace education into the school curriculum. 

Although, it can be introduced as a new subject, it can also be embedded in all aspects of the 

established curriculum. This approach of promoting peace is not designed to resolve on going conflicts 

but rather to prepare for possible future causes of conflicts. It is important to note that any individual or 

nation that desires peace must make conscious efforts to prepare for peace. 

The curriculum is the main instrument for education in schools. Curriculum has been defined 

by Ehindero (1994) as the totality of planned, organized and intended learning experiences, which the 

school provides for the all-round development of the pupils and the society. Any good curriculum 

should have clearly stated objectives, which to a large extent determine its content and implementation. 

According to Tuomi (2004), a balanced school curriculum covering the arts, the sciences and 

technology, non-violence in thought, in speech and in action are very important means and tools to 

achieve peace. Such a curriculum must be suitable to the local culture. 

Thus a way to make peace can be by using science to address the personal, environmental and global 

benefits that can train the mind in the emotions of peace and as a tool to address the causes and impact 

of violence and conflicts. According to the Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific 

Knowledge adopted by the World Conference of Science (1999), science should promote intellectual 

and moral solidarity of mankind, which is the basis of a culture of peace. Science relies on critical and 

free thinking and this is essential in a democratic world. 

One wonders what the proper role of scientific knowledge is. Science has been known for 

breakthroughs. There have been discoveries in electricity, medicine, transportation etc. The methods 

and content of science can also be used to engender peace. Thus, the integrated science curriculum of 

the Nigerian JSS can be used to cultivate a culture of peace. Integrated science is an approach to the 

teaching of science in which concepts and principles are presented so as to express the fundamental 

unity of scientific thought and avoid premature of undue stress on the distinctions between the various 

scientific fields (Bajah, 1989). 

An integrated science curriculum that will build a culture of peace should include the teaching 

of the ethics of science and engineering which is the need for scientists to be aware of and take 

responsibilities for the consequences of their scientific exploits (Aladejana, 2003). Integrated Science 

is offered as a compulsory subject for all JSS students in Nigeria. Focusing on this level of students in 

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creating a culture of peace is based on the premise that consistently it is the children, the youth and 

indeed women that are at the receiving end when there is war or conflict (Aladejana, 2004). There is 

therefore the need for such activities that can build in peace into the individuals. 

The Nigerian JSS curriculum has amongst its philosophy and objectives: 

(i) Preparation for useful living within the society; 

(ii) To raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views and feelings of 

others, respect the dignity of labour and appreciate those values specified under our broad 

national aims and live as good citizens; 

(iii) That the quality of instruction should inculcate in the learner faith in man’s ability to make 

rational decisions 

(iv) To add a cultural dimension to science education. (Federal Ministry of Education, 1981). 

If any curriculum is designed and implemented to attain these lofty ideals, there is no doubt that 

students passing through the programme will cultivate a culture of peace. 

This paper will therefore examine the Nigeria JSS Integrated Science curriculum to determine 

the extent to which it can be used to train the mind in the emotions of peace and as a tool to address the 

causes and impact of violence and conflicts. 

Theoretical perspectives 

This approach to the use of the integrated science to cultivate a culture of peace in learners can 

be grounded on the theory of integrative education which argues that artificially compartmentalized 

knowledge into subject disciplines fails to prepare students for a swiftly changing world. Rather, that 

integrative education cuts across subject-matter lines, bringing together various aspects of the 

curriculum into meaningful association to focus upon broad areas of study (Shoemaker, 1989; and 

Walker, 1995). It reflects the interdependent real world and provides a holistic context for learning that 

leads to a greater ability to make and remember connections, and to solve problems (Kovalik and 

Olsen, 1994). According to Braunger Hart-Landsberg (1993), integrative curriculum attempts to make 

learning more natural and links subjects together. Therefore, based on the adoption of this approach to 

learning, the curriculum of a subject that can be reformed to include peace education is integrated 

science. 

Methodology 

The analysis of the Nigerian JSS integrated Science curriculum content for factors which can in any 

way engender peace, was carried out using nine self-designed questions. The questions were designed 

based on reviewed literature (Chakrabarti and Bhargava, 2004) and previous works of the researchers 

(Aladejana, 2000; 2003; 2004a; 2004b). The questions were validated by assessment by a science 

educator, a curriculum expert and a researcher in peace studies. The philosophy and objectives of the 

curriculum were assessed to determine if they address the issues relating to a culture of peace. 


The results were analyzed based on the research questions raised for the study. 

Question 1: Does the curriculum provide answers to some of the issues that are potential causes of 

conflict and violence? 

The curriculum was found to address some of these issues. Such topics include: 

Causes, symptoms and prevention of diseases many diseases 

Many diseases like small pox and leprosy are by traditional belief attributed to deities, while some are 

107


believed to be inflicted on one by supernatural powers. This has constantly led to great family and local 

community conflicts. The curriculum has dealt extensively with these diseases, their causes and 

prevention. A student who passes through the JSS integrated science will be able to take proper care 

when any of these diseases arise. This will be especially so if the teacher can apply the instruction to 

the misconception. 

Sex determination 

In the Nigerian society, a family is not successful unless there is a male child who is believed 

will be the one to carry on the family name and who will hold the home in future. When a woman now 

has all-female children, the fault is put solely on her and this is a great source of conflict in the home. 

The curriculum describes adequately that having all-female children is not the problem of the woman 

but purely a chance event and basically depending on which of the man’s sperm fertilizes the egg. 

Inheritance of characters (dominant and recessive traits). 

The fact that some characters can be manifested in an offspring even when it is not visible to the 

parents is a topic in the curriculum. Conflicts often arise when some men doubt the paternity of their 

children based on their physical appearance e.g. when parents who are non-albino give birth to an 

albino child. It will be possible for students to explain such inheritance patterns without conflict. 

Question 2. Does the implementation of the curriculum encourage nation wide 

cooperation among all the students? 

The same curriculum is used throughout all the private and public JSS in the 36 states of the country. 

The same examination conducted by the National Examination Council (NECO) is taken by all these 

schools at the end of the 3 year course. Marking of the scripts is done by exchange of scripts amongst 

teachers in the different states. Along with this examination, each of the states conducts JSS 

examinations for its own students. This makes it imperative for students in different schools and even 

different ethnic groups to cooperate in the areas of quiz competitions, science week activities, field 

trips, science exhibitions, and studying together. According to Saloman (2003), studies have shown 

that there is consistent positive correlation between the number and perceived depth of inter-group 

friendships developed during such activities. Thus inter-group activities have led to a greater 

acceptance of members of other groups and this is important in developing a culture of peace. 

Question 3: can the use of the curriculum help to remove disparity between the 

privileged and unprivileged? 

Since the curriculum is used by all JSS schools in Nigeria, all the privileged high brow private 

school students as well as unprivileged public school students share the same information and use even 

the same textbooks. The result is that the children of low socio-economic status are not at a 

disadvantage in terms of what is being learnt. Children of the privileged and unprivileged can attain the 

same feats and go into the same future careers. This removal of disparity is essential for all children to 

feel at home with each other as they will have common grounds for discussion and interaction and 

consequently, less room for friction. 

The result is that no one group will have monopoly over knowledge. Once there is monopoly of 

knowledge, there is the exploitation of the unprivileged by the privileged and the ultimate result of all 

of these is revolt and conflict. Presently in Nigeria, those that form the ethnic militias and fighters in 

the various conflicts are consistently the unprivileged that have little or no access to good education. 

According to Chakrabart and Bhargava (2004), science and scientists are against the monopoly of 

knowledge hence all observations and findings are published in reputable scientific journals for 

everyone around the world to access. 

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It is pertinent to add however that what differ amongst these schools are the facilities available 

to teach the content. Most public schools have inadequate funding, large class size, no laboratory, no 

equipment and chemicals. As a result it becomes very difficult for the teachers to carry out the various 

activities in the curriculum. This should be addressed by any government in the interest of future 

peace. 

Question 4: is the use of dialogue/discussion method recommended? 

The curriculum recommends the use of discussions as one of the methods of teaching topics 

like process of weaning, food crops, gravity, machines and controlling the environment. With the 

students able to discuss and listen to the views of others and arriving at a consensus, they can learn the 

use of dialogue in resolving issues. The way the teacher uses the method is very important. If it is used 

in such a way that all students in the class are involved and heard, both the brilliant and the dull, the 

boys and the girls, the quiet and noisy, and students are allowed to see the wisdom in other peoples’ 

ideas, then it becomes easy for the teacher to let pupils realize that objectives can be achieved through 

a dynamic participative process. 

Question 5: are there topics related to environmental considerations in the 

curriculum? 

The curriculum is based on the thematic approach. Six themes are adopted, one of which is 

‘controlling the environment’. In the three books of the JSS, topics to be learnt under this theme 

include environmental sanitation (refuse and sewage), disease vectors, preventive medicine, 

maintaining balance in the environment, wild life conservation, pollution and the deterioration of the 

environment due to human activities. 

According to Aladejana (2000), 8.85% of the curriculum content consisting of 16 topics is 

devoted to issues of the environment. With this curriculum, students can learn enough to understand 

their environment. Many conflicts have arisen because of environmental issues, for example, 

overgrazing other people’s farmland by cattle-rearers has caused serious communal clashes in the past ; 

a good knowledge of these topics will therefore help the students in their path to building a culture of 

peace. 

Question 6: will learning the curriculum content raise the scientific level of all 

learners? 

Previous work of Aladejana (2000) has shown that 87.08% of the curriculum content provides the 

learner with the required scientific knowledge. These topics span through the disciplines of physics, 

chemistry, biology, and the social sciences. There is adequate scope and depth. Students will have the 

required basic knowledge from learning these topics to be scientifically literate. They will infact be 

able to use simple appliances in the home as these are well stipulated in the content. Such knowledge 

will prevent an individual from conflicts even within himself/herself and be able to live better quality 

life. This is important as the peace that one enjoys within determines largely how much peace one 

enjoys with others. 

Question 7: are there topics highlighting the roles of the scientist, ethics of science 

and engineering? 

According to Aladejana (2000), 3.2% of the curriculum content deals with the scientist’s role in 

development. These topics include science-related occupations, man in space, and immunization. This 

coverage is however inadequate as students need to have a good idea of the benefits they can derive 

from the subject. This can kindle their interest and encourage many to become scientists. The more 

students that want to offer science, the better chance for the nation to become technologically 

109


developed. Technological development will assist in solving a lot of other problems that can lead to 

conflicts. It will also place the nation in a better standing with other technologically advanced countries 

without any fear of oppression. 

While it is true that science and technology have been used by the unscrupulous and the greedy 

for the development of arms and other weapons of war, it is science and technology that have created 

the awareness of the damage that new arms can do (Charkrabarti and Bhargava, 2004). The JSS 

curriculum does not contain any topic on the ethics of science and engineering. It must be recognized 

that scientists have social responsibilities for the information they have and the results of their 

researches. The government and the general public must be aware of precautions to be taken. When 

students have this awareness at this level, many future possible conflicts may be averted. 

Question 8: can the instructional methods recommended in the curriculum train 

the mind of the students for intelligent inquiry? 

Many of the topics in the curriculum can train the mind for intelligent enquiry. Such topics 

have activities which require the students to count, observe, perform, examine and compare. Activities 

of this nature can train the mind. According to Aladejana (2000), 90% of the recommended activities in 

the curriculum have the potential to develop the scientific mind. When an individual has the scientific 

mind, rumours, false accusations, superstitions and many other ills which often cause conflicts will no 

longer be a source of conflict and peace will reign. 

Question 9: is the curriculum suitable for the local culture? 

Most of the examples used in the curriculum are of local origin which the students are quite 

familiar with. The examples used for the topics are better learnt when they are chosen from the local 

environment .The JSS curriculum has many of such examples : use of yam for the test for starch, 

examples of food in a balanced diet, plants and animals used in the food chain and pollutants. This 

makes the curriculum to be real to the students and they can identify with the content. They do not see 

it as foreign or that their background is inferior to that of others. When feelings of inferiority and nonbelongingness 

exist, then conflicts can thrive easily. 

There are two factors deducible from the analysis of the various questions of study as to how 

the JSS integrated science curriculum can be used as a tool for making peace. First is that the 

curriculum development and review process is important to the use of the curriculum. Second is that 

the successful use depends to a very large extent on the ingenuity of the teacher in the implementation 

process. 

The curriculum development and review process will ensure that the philosophy, objectives and 

content are adequate to meet the desired needs. The philosophy and objectives in the current 

curriculum can meet the purpose of building a culture of peace in the students. Qualities of useful 

living; respecting the views and feelings of others, having cultural dimension of science education, and 

making rational decisions advocated for in the curriculum can build in an individual a culture of peace. 

The content has been seen to include a whole range of topics that can serve this purpose. Such topics 

include inheritance patterns, diseases, and appliance in the home. It is desirable that the curriculum 

content be subjected to review process as the need arises such that topics can be added or removed, for 

this JSS curriculum, topics like the roles of the scientist, ethics of science and engineering can then be 

included. 

The instructional methods recommended in the curriculum are adequate in training the mind in 

the culture of peace. These methods include dialogue/discussion method, demonstration, 

experimentation /scientific method. However, how effectively the philosophy and objectives of the 

curriculum are achieved and the proper implementation depends largely on the quality of the teacher. It 

must be reiterated that no educational system can rise beyond the level of its teachers. To realize the 

goal of making the JSS integrated science curriculum an instrument of building a culture of peace, a lot 

110


of responsibility is placed on the teacher. Merely teaching a topic without going on to its practical 

applications to the student’ life and community will not achieve this objective. 

Teachers need to ensure that there is just distribution of resources and equipment especially in 

developing nations like Nigeria where such teaching resources are inadequate. The classroom will be in 

a state of confusion and conflict if some students feel that they will not be provided with their 

classroom needs because of any reason-finance, intelligence and so on. To let the pupils know that 

there is fairness in distribution and that this should be portrayed in every aspect of their lives will be 

building in the students a culture of peace. 

The teacher should ensure that no one or a few students become too powerful or domineering in 

the class demonstrations, experimentation and discussion so as to put other students at a disadvantage. 

If any student starts behaving in this way, he /she should be put right, such that students will not 

imbibe this attitude that can cause conflict in the class. The implications of this attitude should be 

openly discussed in class. Allied to this is tolerance by the teacher and the students. A lot of 

responsibility is therefore placed on the teacher to ensure that the set philosophy and objectives of the 

curriculum are achieved. Also that at the end of the course, students would have imbibed a culture of 

peace. 

Conclusion 

The Nigerian JSS Integrated science curriculum is used in all the junior secondary schools in the 

country. It has well stated philosophy and objectives including those that can lead learners to building a 

culture of peace. The content of the curriculum is suitable for local culture and provides answers to 

some issues that are potential causes of conflict. It includes topics related to the control of the 

environment, topics that can raise the scientific level of the students, and topics highlighting the role of 

the scientist. The stipulated mode of use can encourage nation wide cooperation amongst students and 

also help to remove disparity between the privileged and unprivileged. The instructional methods 

recommended like discussion and inquiry method can train the minds of the students in the use of 

dialogue and intelligent enquiry. This curriculum can be described as an integrated curriculum which 

will not only lead to learning science effectively but can also help learners to cultivate a culture of 

peace. The teacher is recognized as an important factor in all of these issues. Although there are areas 

that require review, with these various identified factors of the curriculum, it can through integrative 

education be effectively used to engender peace and imbibe in the students a culture of peace. 


1). The teacher should relate some of his classroom instructional activities to the culture of peace. 

For example, while using teaching strategies like discussion or demonstration, he /she should go on to 

point out that even in conflicts, solutions can be obtained through these ways. Teachers must specify to 

the students the values they want to promote in the classroom. In teaching some of the topics especially 

those that address issues of conflict in the society, it is important for the teacher to refer specifically to 

these issues and correct any possible misconceptions. Students should be guided to identify the 

practical applications of these topics to their life and society. 

2). The philosophy and objectives of the curriculum should be clearly stated to specify the peace 

values it should promote. It should be clearly stated in the lesson objectives in the curriculum the need 

to explain the practical applications of some of the instructional methods (e.g. discussion, 

demonstration, cooperative learning and field work) to ways of achieving a culture of peace. Let the 

students realize that just as they cannot move forward using these methods to achieve results without 

peace, so also peace in our individual, family, local national and international settings are unachievable 

without embracing dialogue and cooperative attitude. 

111


3). There must be a check in the schools that the appropriate peace values are promoted. The 

principals and ministry inspectors should not only check for academic progress and school facilities but 

must be aware of the culture of peace values and check for them in schools. 

4). Learning activities should encourage inter-group activities like field trips, exhibitions, quiz 

competitions and activities that can foster friendship among the students. Government must adequately 

fund education such that science education can be made available to all. This will reduce the gap 

between the privileged and unprivileged and in a way reduce discord and rebellion. 

References 

[1] Aladejana, A.I. and Aladejana, F.O (2003). An Analytical Review of Conflicts in Nigeria. A 

[2] Proposal for a Culture of Peace. Unesco Conference on Intercultural Education, 15-18 

[3] June 2003, Jyvaskyla, Finland. 

[4] Aladejana, F.O (2000). Analysis and Review of the Junior Secondary School Curriculum for 

Functional Science Education in the 21 st Century. African Journal of Research in Education, 

Vol. 1 No 2 p.123-126. 

[5] Aladejana, F.O (2003). The Social Responsibility of the Scientist. Ife Journal of Theory and 

Research, Vol. 8 no. 3 p73-81 

[6] Aladejana, F.O (2004a). Programmes for Fostering a Culture of Peace. In Lasonen, J (ed). 

Cultures of Peace: From Words to Deeds, The Espoo Seminar Proceedings, Jyvaskyla , 

University Printing Press, p.101 

[7] Aladejana, F.O (2004b). Teacher Education: Roles, Curriculum and Competence. In Ehindero, 

O.J and Aladejana, F.O (eds). Introduction to the Teaching Profession. A Publication of the 

Institute of Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. p78-92 

[8] Bajah, S.T. (1989). Integrated Science as a School subject: A Nigerian Case study. 

EDUCAFRICA, No15, p.154-168. 

[9] Braunger, J. and Hart-Landsberg, S. (1993). Crossing Boundaries: Explorations in Integrative 

Curriculum. Database Search Detail, ED 370239 

[10] Chakrabarti, C. and Bhargava, P. (2004). Science and Technology as Determinants of Peace. 

Here-Now 4U Online Magazine 

[11] Ehindero, O.J (1994). The School and Curriculum Evolution in Nigeria. Ibadan, Nigeria, 

Texflow Limited, p2. 

[12] Federal Ministry of Education (1981). Core Curriculum for Integrated Science: Junior 

Secondary Schools, Lagos, Federal Ministry of Education Press. 

[13] Kovalik, S. and Olsen, K. (1994). ITI: The Model Integrated Thematic Instruction. Third 

Edition. Kent, Washington: Books for Educators, Covington Squire, ED374894. 

[14] Lasonen, J. (2004). Educating People in a Culture of Peace. In Lasonen, J (ed). Cultures of 

Peace: From Words to Deeds, The Espoo Seminar Proceedings, Jyvaskyla , University Printing 

Press, p.11-13. 

[15] Page, J.S. (2004) Peace Education: Exploring Some Philosophical Foundations. International 

Review of Education, Vol. 50 No 1, p.3-15. 

[16] Salomon, G. (2003). Does Peace Education make a Difference. Research on Peace Education, 

[17] Haifa Israel. Http://construct.haifa.ac.il/English/peaceeducation.pdf 

[18] Shoemaker, Betty Jean Eklund (1989). Integrative Education. A Curriculum for the Twenty- 

First 

a. Century. OSSC Bulletin Series. Eugene, Oregon: Oregon School Study Council. 

[19] Tuomu, M.T (2004). Grandmothers’ Wisdom: Report of the Pre-Conference Seminar of the 

a. UNESCO/UNITWIN Conference on Intercultural Education in Lasonen J (ed). Cultures of 

Peace: From Words to Deeds, The Espoo Seminar Proceedings, Jyvaskyla, University 

112


[20] Printing Press, p14-17. 

[21] United Nations (2000). A Declaration on a Culture of Peace. 

[22] http://www.unesco.org/cpp/uk/projects/declarations/2000.htm 

[23] Walker, D. (1995). Integrative Education. ERIC Digest 101 January. 

[24] File://A:\ERICDigest101January1995integrativeEducation.htm 

[25] World Conference on Science (1999). Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific 

Knowledge. http;//www.unesco.org/science/wcs/eng/declaration 

113


A Study of the Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation and 

Parents’ Attitude among the Yorubas of Western Nigeria 

B. I. Popoola 

Department of Educational Foundations and Counselling, 


Ile Ife, Nigeria. 

E-mail bayodep@yahoo.com 

Abstract 

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), a term used to describe the removal of all or a section of 

the external parts of the female genitalia is recognized worldwide as an unnecessarily 

destructive practice affecting the human reproductive system. Within the last one decade, 

the Nigerian government has recognized the practice of female genital mutilation as a 

major public health problem and has mounted extensive media campaigns to stop it. This 

paper is primary conceived to examine the extent to which government campaign efforts 

have yielded fruits. Specifically, it examines the current prevalence of the practice and its 

perception among urban working parents. 

The study participants consisted of 1583 female parents selected by accidental sampling 

technique from government offices in three urban cities of Osun State, Nigeria. One 

instrument titled “Practice of Female Circumcision” was administered to parents to collect 

data on the prevalence of FGM and to determine the attitude of subjects towards the 

practice. 

Results from frequency counts, percentages, and chi-square statistical analysis of data 

revealed that majority of sampled mothers engaged in FGM within the last five years with 

adherence to tradition and the need to protect female children from sexual promiscuity as 

major reasons for the practice. The paper brings to focus the need for a well-coordinated 

professional counselling intervention to eradicate the practice of female genital mutilation. 

Introduction 

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), which is sometimes mildly referred to as female circumcision, is 

the removal of a certain amount of tissue from the female external genitalia through traditional genital 

surgery. The term, as defined by the World Health Organization, describes any of four different types 

of cutting procedures performed on a woman’s external genitalia. The first type, known as sunna 

circumcision, is the removal of the tip of the clitoris. Type II, known as clitoridectomy or excision, 

involves the removal of the entire clitoris and the adjacent labia. Type III, which is known as 

infibulation, involves the most extreme type of mutilation in which the entire clitoris and the adjacent 

labia are removed and the involved areas stitched with suture leaving a small opening for the passage 

of urine and menstrual blood. Type IV comprises any form of genital alteration in which chemical or 

corrosive substances are applied to the vagina with the purpose of narrowing its opening. Female 

Genital Mutilation (FGM), in whatever form, is recognized worldwide as an unnecessarily destructive 

114


practice with several negative effects on the woman’s reproductive system. In the opinion of the 

World Medical Association, FGM is detrimental to the physical and mental health of girls and women 

and it is a form of oppression of women (WMA, 1993). The World Health Organization has 

consistently opposed the medicalization of the practice on the ground that it lacks any medical benefit 

(Dorkenoo, 1996). 

Female genital mutilation is practiced in many parts of the world but mainly in 28 African 

countries and some parts of Asia and the Middle East (WHO, 1995). Toubia (1995) reported that 130 

million of the world’s female population had undergone genital mutilation and two million are at risk 

every year. The operation is forced on approximately 6000 girls per day, about one every 15 seconds. 

It is estimated that about 75 percent of the global cases of FGM come from Africa. 

In Nigeria, very few statistical studies are available which provide accurate estimates of the 

frequency with which FGM is performed. One of the widely-cited estimates is the 1997 World Health 

Organization study which reported that an estimated 30.625 million women and girls, or about 60 per 

cent of the total female population of Nigeria, have undergone genital mutilation while many more are 

still being subjected to it every year (WHO, 1997). Also, a 1996 United Nations Development 

Systems study reported a similar number of 32.7 million Nigerian women affected by FGM (US 

Department of State, 2001). It is not unlikely that the incidence of FGM in Nigeria would be much 

higher than had been reported in these studies since practitioners and victims do not voluntarily report 

such cases to the government. Also, cases of FGM may have been grossly under-reported as the 

practice occurs mostly in villages where government health officials do not have easy access to 

monitor its spread. 

FGM is practiced in Nigeria in different degrees across ethnic groups, though research data on 

the prevalence of the practice among ethnic groups have not been consistent. For instance, while the 

National Baseline survey reported that more than 90 percent of Yoruba women had undergone genital 

mutilation; Modupe & Lola (1985) and Ogunlola, Orji & Owolabi (2003) reported 71.3 and 60 percent 

prevalent rates respectively. However, findings on types of FGM practiced in the country indicated 

that Types I and II are the most predominant forms (Mandara, 2004; Mukoro, 2004). 

The procedure followed in carrying out FGM in Nigeria and the age at which it is done vary 

according to ethnic groups. In some ethnic groups, FGM is performed on girls from a few days after 

birth to eight years while in others, it is performed as a rite of womanhood for adolescent girls 

preparing for marriage. In some few groups, FGM is performed on pregnant women shortly before 

they give birth, based on the traditional belief that the baby will die during delivery if its head touches 

the mother’s intact clitoris. In few extreme cases, the procedure is performed on a deceased woman 

before burial if it is discovered that the woman did not have the operation before her death (US 

Department of State, 2001). 

Generally, FGM is performed at home by medically untrained persons under unhygienic 

conditions and without the use of anesthesia. The common picture is that of a struggling and 

screaming girl held down forcefully by adults while the traditional surgeon with crude and nonsterilized 

instruments in a poorly-lit room attempts to cut away any part of the external genitalia that he 

or she is able to get hold of (Hosken, 1989). Quite often, under the conditions in which the operation is 

performed, what the traditional surgeon intends to be a minor cutting may end up being a most severe 

form of mutilation. 

Various reasons have been adduced to justify the practice of FGM. The most common is the 

need to maintain local custom and tradition. In many communities, it is believed that FGM is a custom 

decreed by the ancestors and that its elimination or discontinuation is tantamount to the demise of the 

cultural heritage of the people, and an invitation to incurring the wrath of the ancestors. 

Many of the traditional beliefs of the people regarding the practice of FGM are incompatible 

with biological facts. For instance, it is believed that FGM ensures cleanliness, enhances femininity, 

and promotes sexual faithfulness of married women. There is also a strong traditional belief that the 

115


clitoris is dangerous and that an unborn baby will die if its head touches it during child delivery. As a 

result of these beliefs, women who have not undergone the procedure are considered unsuitable for 

marriage and a poor risk as mothers. Despite the efforts of numerous human-rights organizations and 

the government to discourage FGM, the practice continues in Nigeria, with its prevalence exceeding 90 

percent in some communities (Briggs, 2002). 

The consequences of FGM on the health of its victims are well documented. Islam and Uddin 

(2001) identified the immediate consequences of FGM as hemorrhage, infection, difficulty in passing 

urine, urine retention, fever, stress, shock and damage to the genital organs. According to Brady 

(1999), long-term consequences of FGM include urinary incontinence, cysts, urogenital tract 

infections, severe dyspareunia and pelvic inflammatory disease. 

The effects of FGM on women’s reproductive system have been discussed in a number of 

studies (Badri, 1984; Egwuatu & Agugua, 1981; Toubia, 1994; Obuekwe & Egbagbe, 2001) 

Generally, FGM is linked with infertility and obstetrical problems such as delayed or obstructed 

second stage labor, trauma, and hemorrhage during child delivery. Other long-term medical 

complications might include extensive damage to the external reproductive system and uterus, 

increased risk of vesico-vaginal fistulae and complications in pregnancy and childbirth. An early study 

by Mustafa (1966) had estimated that 20 to 25 percent of cases of female sterility in Sudan could be 

linked to FGM. More recently, available research evidence (Aziz, 1980; Mahran, 1981 and 

McCaffrey, 1995; Obuekwe & Egbagbe, 2001) tend to lend credence to speculations that the high 

prevalence of female sterility in many areas of sub-Sahara Africa where FGM is practiced may have 

been one of the long-term consequences of exposing women to FGM. 

The effects of FGM on the female sexual response are more difficult to investigate 

scientifically than the obstetrical effects. However, it is reasonable to assume that the mutilation of the 

clitoris would adversely affect women’s sexual pleasure and sensitivity considering that the clitoris is 

probably the most erotically sensitive organ in women. 

The contributions of FGM to HIV transmission have not been empirically established though it 

has been postulated that FGM may play a significant role in facilitating the transmission of HIV 

infection through numerous mechanisms (Brady, 1999). One of the presumed explanations of the 

relationship between FGM and HIV transmission is that the presence of scar tissues and the abnormal 

anatomy of a mutilated vagina would predispose a woman to numerous small tears during intercourse 

thereby increasing the possibility of AIDS transmission (Hrdy, 1987). 

The major concern in the issue of FGM is not so much its effects on the number of women that 

have had the procedure already performed on them. What is more worrisome is why the practice 

seems to be thriving in spite of the international outcry against its continuation. It is logical to think 

that the attitudes of mothers to FGM would be a major factor in the continuation or discontinuation of 

the practice. Based on this premise, this study was designed to investigate the practice of FGM among 

the Yorubas and ascertain the factors which make women favorably disposed to its continuation. It 

was hoped that the outcome of the study would assist in providing information which would assist in 

the formulation of policies aimed at eradicating the practice of FGM. 

Method 

The study is a descriptive survey on the practice of FGM and the attitude of female parents to it 

among the Yorubas of South Western Nigeria. Respondents, who were mainly teachers and civil 

servants, were mothers selected by accidental but purposive sampling technique from three urban 

towns (Ile-Ife, Ilesa and Osogbo) in Osun State, Nigeria. The mothers, ranged between 25 to 45 years 

old, were approached in their places of work and asked to respond to a questionnaire on the practice of 

“female circumcision”. During collation and scoring of the questionnaire, responses of women who 

had not given birth to at least a female child within the last five years were discarded. Following this 

procedure, a sample of 1583 respondents was obtained for the study. 

116


A self-developed questionnaire was administered to elicit information on demographic 

characteristics of respondents, practice of FGM, reasons for the practice and attitudes toward its 

continuation. To measure respondents’ attitudes to FGM, they were presented ten statements on the 

practice of FGM to which they were to indicate their level of agreement on a five-point scale. Scores 

in all ten items were summed up and used as the measure of respondents’ attitude to the practice of 

FGM. The higher the score a respondent got, the stronger her support for the discontinuation of FGM. 

The questionnaire yielded a test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.84 when tested for reliability before 

use. Descriptive and inferential statistics were employed to analyze the data collected. 

Results 

A total of 1583 respondents participated in the study, each of whom was married and had at 

least one female child within the last five years. Most respondents were between 25 and 35 years old 

and had more than secondary school education. They belonged to the two dominant religions in 

Nigeria: Christianity and Islam. Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of respondents 

according to age, level of education, marital status and religion. 

Table 1 : Demographic Characteristics of Respondents 

RESPONDENTS’ AGE CATEGORIES 

VARIABLES Below 25 25 to 35 36 to 45 Above Total 

Years Years Years 45 Years 

Secondary 

Level Of 

OND/NCE 

Education First Degree 

Above 1 st 59 149 79 78 365 

92 263 163 133 651 

63 226 118 92 499 

Degree 9 25 14 20 68 

Marital status Single Mother 1 9 10 1 21 

Married 

193 584 310 299 1386 

Separated 

23 45 35 15 118 

Divorced 

6 25 19 8 58 

Religion Christianity 

207 608 358 303 1476 

Islam 

16 55 16 20 107 

The results of the study on the prevalence of FGM as presented in Table 2 showed that 1384 

mothers representing 87.4% of the total sample had FGM performed on them as against 199 (12.6%) 

who reported that they were not genitally mutilated. The results also indicated that 79.4% of the 

respondents’ daughters were genitally mutilated. 

The data in Table 2 also revealed the relationship between respondents’ and their daughters’ 

FGM status. Out of 1384 mothers who had FGM performed on them, 1206 (87.1%) had their 

daughters genitally mutilated within the last five years while only 178 (12.9%) did not. On the other 

hand, of 199 mothers who did not experience FGM, 148 (74.4%) did not carry it out on their daughters 

while 51 (25.6%) had the procedure performed on their daughters. These analyses yielded a chi-square 

value of 402.55, which is significant at 0.05 level given one degree of freedom. This suggests that 

respondents who themselves were genitally mutilated had a statistically significantly possibility of their 

daughters being genitally mutilated. 

117

Table 2 : FGM Status of Respondents and their Daughters 

RESPONDENTS’ 

FGM STATUS 


DAUGHTERS’ FGM STATUS 

NOT TOTAL 

MUTILATED MUTILATED 

N % N % N % 

MUTILATED 1206 87.1 178 12.9 1384 87.4 

NOT MUTILATED 51 25.6 148 74.4 199 12.6 

TOTAL 1257 79.4 326 20.6 1583 100 

118 

χ 2 

402.55 

df 

1 

P 

< 0.05 

The study also investigated the prevalence of FGM according to degree of mutilation. As 

shown in Table 3, majority of mothers who were genitally mutilated (90.8%) reported that Type 1 

(sunna circumcision) was performed on them, 7.2% reported Type II (excision) and 2,1% did not know 

which type they had been subjected to. The results also indicated that 96.9% of respondents’ daughters 

had Type I, while 3.1% had Type II performed on them. None of the respondents reported carrying out 

Types III and IV on their daughters. 

Table 3 : Type of FGM Performed on Mothers and their Daughters 

TYPE OF MUTILATION 

Type Type Type Don’t Know TOTAL 

FGM 

1 

II III 

N % N % N % N % N % 

MOTHERS 1256 90.8 99 7.2% - - 29 2.1% 1384 100 

DAUGHTERS 1218 96.9 39 3.1% - - - - 1257 100 

Reasons given by respondents to justify the practice of FGM were also investigated. Ten 

reasons were identified and presented to respondents, who were required to state whether or not they 

accepted the reasons as tenable to justify the practice of FGM. The results of the analysis are presented 

in Table 4: 

Table 4 : Reasons Adduced for the Practice of FGM 

TENABLE UNTENABLE 

REASONS N % N % TOTAL 

Compliance with the local custom 1369 86.5 214 13.5 1583 

Reduction of women’s sexual appetite 1295 81.8 288 18.2 1583 

Compliance with husband’s wish 1280 80.9 303 19.1 1583 

Prevention of sex outside marriage 1226 77.4 357 22.6 1583 

Prevention of sexual promiscuity by unmarried girls 1176 74.3 407 25.7 1583 

To save the lives of unborn babies during delivery 1020 64.4 563 35.6 1583 

Initiation rite to womanhood 466 29.4 1117 70.6 1583 

Preservation of female virginity 436 27.5 1147 72.5 1583 

Protection of family honor 414 26.2 1169 73.8 1583 

Compliance with family religion 388 24.5 1195 75.5 1583 

As shown in Table 4, an overwhelming majority of respondents (86.5) reported that compliance 

with local custom was a major reason for the practice of FGM. Also, 81.8% and 80.9% of the 

respondents gave control of women’s sexual appetite and compliance with husband’s wish respectively


as tenable reasons for the continuation of the practice. Conversely, an overwhelming majority of 

respondents agreed that preservation of female virginity (72.5%), protection of family honor (73.8%), 

and compliance with family religion (75.5%) were not strong reasons for the practice of FGM. 

Furthermore, the study examined the attitudes of respondents to the practice of FGM with a 

view to determining the factors which might tend to influence their attitudes. The data in Table 5 

present chi-square analysis of the influence of religion, age, level of education, FGM status, husbands’ 

position and awareness of negative consequences of FGM on the attitudes of respondents to the 

practice. 

Table 5 : Respondents’ Attitudes to FGM 

RESPONDENTS’ 

CHARACTERISTICS 

RELIGION Xtianity 

Islam 

Below 25 years 

AGE 

25 – 35 years 

36 – 45 years 

Above 45 years 

LEVEL OF 

EDUCATION 

Sec. School 

OND/NCE 

1 st Degree 

Above 1 st 

FGM STATUS Mutilated 

Not Mutilated 

HUSBAND’S Supported FGM 

POSITION Opposed FGM 

Indifferent 

FGM CONSE- Aware 

QUENCES Not Aware 

ATTITUDE TO FGM 

DIS- 

APPROVAL APPROVAL 

N % N % 

1008 

81 

158 

461 

252 

218 

307 

460 

287 

35 

953 

136 

990 

39 

60 

305 

784 

68.7 

70.4 

47.7 

60.6 

95.5 

96.0 

89.5 

69.1 

57.9 

44.9 

68.9 

68.3 

71.6 

46.4 

51.7 

28 

72.0 

460 

34 

173 

300 

12 

9 

36 

206 

209 

43 

431 

63 

119 

393 

45 

56 

139 

355 

31.3 

29.6 

52.3 

39.4 

4.5 

4.0 

10.5 

30.9 

42.1 

55.1 

31.1 

31.7 

28.4 

53.6 

48.3 

28.1 

71.9 

TOTAL 

1468 

115 

331 

761 

264 

227 

343 

666 

496 

78 

1384 

199 

1383 

84 

116 

444 

1139 

χ 2 

df 

P 

.156 1 >0.05 

258.18 

116.95 

.87 

40.329 

.957 

3 

3 

1 

2 

1 


exercise some caution in interpreting this result more so that no clinical examination of respondents 

was carried out to confirm their self-reported FGM status and type. Nevertheless, the data reported in 

this study can be relied upon to a reasonable degree when viewed in the context of numerous other 

studies which had investigated the prevalence of FGM in Nigeria and other African countries. For 

instance, Epstein, Graham & Rimsza (2001) reported that FGM was performed on 89% of females in 

Northern Sudan and on about 98% of Somali females. In the same vein, Allam, Irala-Estevez & 

Novajas (1999) reported that 95% of Egyptian females were mutilated to some degree. Several prior 

studies in Nigeria had reported high prevalence of FGM ranging from 70 to 95% (Briggs, 2002 and 

Modupe & Lola, 1985). 

However, the high prevalence of FGM as reported in this study raises doubts concerning the 

efficacy of various local and national public enlightenment campaigns mounted by the Nigerian 

government in recent time to stop the practice of FGM. The present data on the prevalence of FGM, 

which is as high as was reported in studies conducted several years before the present study, suggests 

that campaign efforts to stop the practice had either not been well targeted or that the efforts had not 

been strong enough to produce any significant reduction in the practice. 

It is noteworthy that majority of respondents who experienced FGM reported carrying out the 

procedure on at least one daughter within the last five years. This seems difficult to explain 

considering that the respondents also admitted that FGM had negative effects on its victims. It is 

certainly a matter of serious concern that the victims, in spite of the negative effects of the practice on 

them, did not just believe that FGM was good but actually performed the procedure on their daughters. 

This phenomenon tends to confirm the observation in the joint report of the World Health Organization 

and the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics (1992) that victims of the practice are 

often its strongest proponents. 

The justification for FGM, as found out in this study, was largely grounded in the desire to 

protect the local custom of the people. Other highly favored reasons include the need to control a 

woman’s sexual appetite, compliance with husband’s desire to have the female child circumcised, 

prevention of sexual promiscuity by unmarried girls and the need to save the life of an unborn baby, 

which necessitates the cutting of the mother’s clitoris so that the baby’s head does not touch it during 

delivery. Most of these reasons are not only self-contradictory but highly incompatible with biological 

facts. Interestingly, majority of respondents disagreed that the practice was a necessary religious 

obligation, though a greater percentage of Muslim respondents were more favorably disposed toward 

the continuation of the practice than their Christian counterparts. 

Another major finding of this study is the influence of some selected variables on respondents’ 

attitude to FGM. When respondents’ attitudes to FGM were examined based on selected background 

variables, it was found that age, level of education and husband’s support for the practice significantly 

influenced their attitudes. With regard to age and education, older respondents and those with lower 

levels of education showed more support for the practice than younger and more educated respondents. 

This is consistent with findings from several studies in Nigeria and elsewhere (Adinma, 1997; 

Ehigiegba, et al, 1998; Adongo, et al, 1998; Mbacke et al, 1998; EFCS, 1996). 

It is instructive that the results of this study showed that women’s attitude to FGM were 

significantly influenced by their husbands’ support for the practice. Respondents who reported that 

their husbands supported the practice or were indifferent to it demonstrated a stronger support for the 

continuation of the practice than those whose husbands opposed it. This suggests that Nigerian men 

have a significant role to play in the eradication of FGM. If men withdraw their support for the 

practice, it is likely that their wives would change their attitude. 

It is, however, puzzling that the awareness of negative consequences of FGM by respondents 

did not significantly influence their attitudes. Ordinarily, one expects that the awareness of health 

hazards and other negative consequences associated with a practice should be enough to make those 

who engage in it change their attitude to the practice and consequently withdraw their support. 

However, despite their awareness of and personal exposure to the negative effects of FGM, 

120


respondents still demonstrated support for the practice obviously because of the widespread wrong 

belief that the social benefits of FGM far outweigh any health hazards associated with it. It is 

imperative to assist victims of FGM to correct the erroneous conviction that FGM procedures 

performed on them had been necessary for their personal benefits, a conviction which had served as the 

social motivation needed for the perpetuation of the practice at all costs. 

Conclusion 

This study has confirmed the high prevalence of female genital mutilation in Nigeria. It 

identified adherence to local custom, protection of female children from sexual promiscuity, control of 

women’s sexual appetite and compliance with husbands’ wish as major reasons for the continuation of 

the practice. Other findings from the study indicated that age, level of education and husband’s 

support for FGM significantly influenced women’s attitudes to the practice. The multi-factorial nature 

of these findings points to the fact that programs for the eradication of FGM would require a multifaceted 

and multi-disciplinary approach if they are to achieve any significant reduction in the practice. 

The results of this study suggest the need for Nigerian government to treat the practice of FGM 

as a serious public health issue. Consistent and committed public enlightenment and awareness 

campaigns are needed to convince individuals about the harmful effects of the practice and mobilize 

the entire community against it. Since the practice is deeply rooted in the people’s local custom, 

campaign efforts aimed at changing the deeply-felt beliefs of the people should be incorporated into the 

nation’s primary and secondary school health education curriculum and taught to children during their 

formative years. 

It is important that the campaign to eradicate FGM should be directed at both men and women. 

It is naïve to treat the issue of FGM as a purely feminist affair. This study has demonstrated that the 

practice is supported and encouraged by men, who are decision makers in each family. What this 

implies is that FGM will be minimized if, for instance, men change the belief that uncircumcised 

women are likely to be promiscuous as wives and therefore unmarriageable. 

In view of the widespread cultural support for FGM, it appears that outlawing the practice and 

imposing legal sanctions on practitioners by the government may not be enforceable and, in fact, may 

be counter-productive. A purely legal approach might force practitioners to go underground for fear 

of legal sanctions and their victims might stop seeking medical care to prevent family members who 

carried out the procedure on them from being prosecuted. Instead of legal sanctions by the 

government, Toubia (1995) advocated clear policy declaration and a strong message of disapproval 

followed by consistent public information campaigns. 

For effective results, FGM eradication campaigns should be backed with well-coordinated 

professional counselling intervention programs. Professional health counsellors and psychologists are 

needed to present in a persuasive and non-judgmental way, and using the people’s experience, the 

biological facts which make FGM unnecessary. Counselling intervention aimed at dispelling the 

superstitions surrounding the practice should be targeted at all facets of the community but with extra 

focus on traditional midwives and birth attendants, practitioners of traditional medicine, community 

and religious leaders with a view to enlisting their support for the general efforts to abolish the 

practice. 

Finally, it is pertinent to realize that because of its present high prevalence, effective FGM 

eradication program in Nigeria, as in many African nations, will require massive human and financial 

resources, consistence and commitment. Until African nations, perhaps assisted by the Western world, 

are able to provide the required resources for its eradication, it appears the practice of FGM will 

continue for now unabated. 

121


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123


Governance, Taxation and Fiscal Policy In Nigeria 

Olu Okotoni 

Department of Public Administration 



mokotoni@oauife.edu.nig 

olu_okotoni@yahoo.co.uk 

Abstract 

The paper examines governance, taxation and fiscal policy in Nigeria. It identifies that 

fiscal policy remains one of the greatest threats to political stability in Nigeria because the 

colonial architects of Nigeria laid the foundation on fiscal convenience, rather than on 

mutual trust, cultural and historical affinity. The article also establishes that governance 

and taxation exist side by side since taxes are needed to pay government's bills, but citizens 

see taxes as means of depriving them part of their income and therefore constitute potential 

source(s) of conflicts. It is further noted that the incursion of the military into Nigeria's 

politics since 1966 has aggravated the governance crises rather than addressed them and 

that while successive military administrations have succeeded in breaking up the federal 

structure into more sub-national units, they have failed in all other areas of governance – 

transparency and accountability, economic development, fiscal policy and democratisation. 

The paper also notes that Nigeria has not only failed to evolve a successful fiscal policy, 

but its fiscal federalism from 1914 to date portends a bleak scenario since most efforts have 

been geared toward sharing rather than mobilizing of resources, leading to a monolithic 

economy. The paper recommends that proper accountability, transparency and honesty are 

necessary for sustaining democratic governance in Nigeria and that all existing and 

potential sources of revenue be maximally explored. The article concludes that an effective 

management of the symbiotic relationship between governance and taxation is capable of 

producing good fiscal policy for the country. 

Preamble 

Governance carries a variety of definitions. The purpose sometimes determines the nature, scope and 

perspective of its definition. The World Bank (1992:1) for example views governance from power 

perspective, defining it as "the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country's 

economic and social resources for development.” Mohammed Fofana (1997) who takes an economic 

approach sees governance as "the process by which a society makes decision about the production and 

distribution of scarce resources." To William Zartman (1997:1) governance is conflict management. 

Landell-Mills and Serageldin (1991:304) 1 define governance as "how people are ruled, how the affairs 

1Cited from Nazrul Islam and Om Prakash Mathur (1995) "Urban Governance in Asia" in Urban Governance (Regional paper presented at the Second Urban 

Forum: November 27-29, 1995 at the UN Office, Nairobi, pg 1. 

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of a state are administered and regulated". Goran Hyden (1992) equates governance with regime, 

which he defines as "the conscious management of regime structures with a view to enhancing the 

legitimacy of the public realms" (1992:7). Rosenau (1992:5) who views governance from a political 

angle argues that governance is not synonymous with government, stating that "governance is a system 

of rule that works only if it is accepted by the majority (or at least, by the most powerful of those it 

affects, whereas governments can function even in the face of widespread opposition to their policies." 

Nazrul Islam and Om Prakash Mathur (1995:3) also view governance from political perspective state 

that "governance broadly refers to the system of government concentrating on effective and 

accountable institution, democratic principles and electoral processes, representative and responsible 

structures of government in order to ensure an open and legitimate relationship between the civil 

society and the state." Trevor Gordon-Somers’ (1997:133) attempt appears like a summary: the 

legitimate exercise of political, economic and administrative authority in the management of a 

country's affairs, at all levels. It comprises the complex mechanisms, processes and institutions through 

which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights and obligations and 

mediate their differences. Management of development, in terms of policy formulation, resource 

allocation and balancing of economic interests, is crucial". … Sound governance is therefore 

participatory, transparent, accountable, effective, equitable and promotes the rule of law. 

From the various definitions, governance is viewed within the narrow context of state; whereas 

the term governance covers a wider range such as civil society, non-governmental organizations, 

community affairs etc. 

Governance and taxation exist side by side. Taxation which is an integral part of governance 

constitutes a potential source of conflict. Taxes are needed to pay government's bills, but citizens see 

taxes as means of depriving them part of their income and resources. The Peasants Revolt in the 

fourteenth century was caused by the introduction of a poll tax; “and throughout history, unfair or 

seemingly unfair systems of taxation have been at the heart of many such conflicts.” (Nightingale, 

2001). One of the fundamental causes of the American War for Independence was the rebellion of 

British colonists against taxes that were perceived as inequitable. 2 (Pechman,1985). In Nigeria, 

property tax is seen as unjust and in fact, culturally unacceptable as it seems to penalize people for 

owning property. Thus, this tax which has the greatest potential for local government revenue 

generation cannot be fully tapped. In many instances, tax payers cannot justify the continuous payment 

of some certain rates and taxes, as there are no corresponding services from government. 

Arbitrary increase in taxation triggers resistance from tax payers. This was the case of the 1968 

civil disturbances in the Western State of Nigeria (now Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Ekiti states), 

occasioned by what was considered as an outrageous increase of tax rates in the state. As a result, a 

group of farmers known as Agbekoya (meaning Farmers against Oppression) revolted against the 

arbitrary increase in taxes and levies. This resulted in a bloody clash that lasted for several months 

before the revolt was quelled. The following extracts from the Drum Magazine (June 1969) provides 

an insight into the story: 

The fracas began in Ibadan towards the beginning of December 1968 when a mammoth crowd of tax agitators marched towards Mapo 

hall singing a war song: Oke mefa l'ao san. Oke mefa l'ao san. Bi o ba gba kumo, a o gbo'ri bibe. Oke mefa l'ao san. This means in 

English: "We are paying only thirty shillings. If this cannot be achieved by the application of cudgel, it will be by the cutting off of 

certain heads. We are paying only thirty shillings. 

2For 

example, a "protest Congress gathered in 1765 in reaction to the 1763 Stamp Tax for raising revenue among the colonies. The Congress asserted such 

fundamental principles as the entitlements of colonists to the 'inherent rights and liberties' of British subjects. Henry J. Merry (1986) The Constitutional System: 

The Group Character of the Elected Institutions New York, Praeger Publishers, page 20. 

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At the time of this praetorian threat of carnage and murder, income tax (poll tax) in the state had risen from #1.17.6d to #3 including a 

state development fund of 7s.6d. In addition, the agitators were expected to pay 10 shillings national reconstruction fund, an average of 

30 shillings water rate, all adding to #9 (Nine pounds) in certain parts of the state. 

The military governor, Brigadier Adebayo, was forced to succumb to some of their demands. He 

immediately announced a cut of five shillings from every item under taxation and also warned civil 

servants in the state "not to make the people pay for services which are not yet available." 

There is the problem of perception. Many citizens believe that governance is about sharing 

rather than mobilizing resources. They expect government to provide all social services and facilities 

free of charge. The era of oil boom in Nigeria strengthened this idea that government have enough 

resources to provide free services and cater for government's expenditure. Thus, taxes and rates are 

seen as unnecessary burdens from government. Poor sharing of national resources and bad fiscal policy 

also constitute potential sources of conflict. This is the case of the oil producing areas in Nigeria 

(especially the Ogonis) that are aggrieved over the sharing and distribution of mineral resources 

extracted from their land. Inter-governmental transfers of fiscal resources among the various levels of 

government and jurisdictional tax powers constitute another problem in governance. In summary, 

governance, taxation, fiscal policy and conflict are interrelated. A poor management of one constitutes 

a potential source of crisis. The dynamics of their interrelationship is the pre-occupation of this paper. 

Research problem 

Fiscal policy remains one of the greatest threats to political stability in Nigeria. Fiscal policy and 

taxation are central issues in Nigeria’s governance arena since 1914. In the first instance, one of the 

principal reasons why the Northern and the Southern Protectorates were amalgamated was to make up 

from the fiscal surplus of the south for the rather perpetual fiscal deficit of the north. Peter Ekeh 

(1997:40) explained, "Frugal British administration were not pleased that although Southern Nigeria 

could pay for its own administration, Northern Nigeria's administrative costs were subsidized from 

London. It was for the sake of achieving economic balance that the amalgamation of the two separate 

colonies of Southern and Northern Nigeria was effected in 1914". The colonial architects of Nigeria 

laid the foundation on fiscal convenience, rather than on mutual trust, cultural and historical affinity. 

To Ogundowole (1994:ix), 

The amalgamation of the peoples of Nigeria into a federation devoid of nationality formations is in itself 

denationalization par excellence, i.e. taking away the very souls of the peoples of the nationalities that constitute 

Nigeria, while the federation represents nothing more than the amalgamation of the lifeless ghosts of the nationalities. 

Okoth-Ogendo (1996:53) corroborates this point, "the state in Africa at independence was not a 

constitutional state", but a constituted state; "one erected on pillars that were not fashioned out of past 

experiences or future aspirations"; and argues that "as constituted, the machinery of the state was not 

part of the shared experience of the African people." Since Nigeria’s foundation was laid on fiscal 

considerations, any thing that touches on fiscal issues becomes very crucial to its existence. This 

explains why Nigeria’s fiscal policy has received more attention and public debate than any federal 

problems since Independence. Other federal matters (such as the creation of states and local 

governments, federal character, population, census, boundaries, intergovernmental relations, 

constitutional jurisdictions, inter-group relations, ethnicity, elections etc) revolve around this. The 

federal system which was adopted in 1954 gave birth to acrimony, inter-ethnic and inter-group 

conflicts. A civil war was fought from 1967 to 1970 around the subject of what should constitute an 

acceptable social, political and economic order. 

The incursion of the military into Nigerian politics since 1966 did not help matter. Successive 

military administrations have aggravated the failures of the Nigerian state rather than address them. 

The military has ruled the country for more than three decades out of forty-two years of independence 

in 1960. Under military regimes, federal government arrogated to itself "extraordinary powers which 

126


do not constitutionally belong to it". (Ekeh, 1997:7). These include "the seizure of funds and 

appropriation of assets that should belong to local governments, states, and corporate institutions 

established by the constitution and legislative provisions." (ibid:7). It is against this background the 

paper discusses the problems associated with governance, taxation and fiscal policies in Nigeria. 


The overall objective of this study is to examine and document some of the most successful strategies 

for tackling the problems associated with taxation and fiscal policies in Nigeria. 

Specifically, the study sets out to: 

i. examine the role of taxation and fiscal policy in Nigerian governance; 

ii. determine the extent the fiscal crisis has affected the Nigeria's federation; 

iii. examine and document the strategies employed in tackling one and two above; 

iv. proffer solutions on how to mitigate the problems of fiscal crisis and taxation on 

governance in Nigeria, and highlight policy challenges for the next millennium 

Theoretical and intellectual discourse 

The subject of taxation has received considerable intellectual and theoretical attention in literature. 

Taxation is one of the most volatile subjects in governance both in developing and developed 

countries. It is, therefore, no surprise that some of the most familiar quotations in history have been 

comments by famous men about taxes (Pechman, 1985:1). Benjamin Franklin once remarked, "in this 

world, nothing is certain but death and taxes." (ibid:1). Chief Justice John Marshall in the United States 

of America was quoted as saying: "the power to tax involves the power to destroy." The above 

quotations show clearly the volatility of taxation. 

Tax and taxation are used synonymously in this paper. Tax refers to a "compulsory levy by a 

public authority for which nothing is received directly in return." (James and Nobes, 1992:266). To 

Kath Nightingale (2001) “a tax is compulsory contribution, imposed by government, and while tax 

payers may receive nothing identifiable in return for their contribution, they nevertheless have the 

benefit of living in a relatively educated, healthy and safe society.” Nightingale explains that taxation 

is “part of the price to be paid for an organized society.” She identified six reasons for taxation: 

provision of public goods, redistribution of income and wealth, promotion of social and economic 

welfare, economic stability, harmonization and regulation. 

Fiscal policy refers to "government's use of taxation and public expenditure to influence the 

aggregate level of economic activity." (James and Nobes, 1992:266). According to Jhingan (1996:348) 

fiscal policy means "the use of taxation, public borrowing, and public expenditure by government for 

purposes of 'stabilization' or 'development'." Fiscal policy also involves government's measures to 

control and monitor public finance with a view of achieving some economic goals. The role of fiscal 

policy varies significantly within various economies. For instance, the role of fiscal policy in advanced 

economies is to stabilise the rate of growth, whereas in "the context of an underdeveloped economy, 

the role of fiscal policy is to accelerate the rate of capital formation." (ibid:348). Jhingan adds, "fiscal 

policy plays a dynamic role in underdeveloped countries" - as its extensive use is indispensable for 

economic development. The objectives of fiscal policy are to (i) increase the rate of investment; (ii) 

encourage socially optimal investment; (iii) increase employment opportunities; (iv) promote economic 

stability in the face of international instability; (v) counteract inflation; and (vi) increase and 

redistribute national income. (Jhingan, 1996) The objectives of fiscal policy are quite laudable and are 

capable of yielding tremendous results if judiciously pursued by any government, but feasible in a 

stable political arena. The absence of political stability in Nigeria since independence in 1960 has 

contributed to its inability to embark on fiscal policies that could lead to economic development. 

Joseph Schumpeter (1996) addresses the crisis of the tax state. He argues that "the fiscal history 

127


of a people is above all an essential part of its general history" and that taxes do not only help to create 

the state, but also help to form it. Schumpeter's argument appears relevant to Nigeria's political history 

where fiscal finance forms a dominant part. Nobert EIias (1996:345-6) focuses on the state’s monopoly 

of violence and explains the inter-relationship between the use of physical violence and taxation. He 

comments, 

The society of what we call the modern age is characterized, above all in the West, by a certain level of monopolization. Free use of 

military weapons is denied the individual and reserved to a central authority of whatever kind, and likewise the taxation of the property 

or income of individuals is concentrated in the hands of a central social authority. The financial means thus flowing into this central 

authority maintain its monopoly of military force, while this in turn maintains the monopoly of taxation. 

Many African States, including Nigeria, have abused this monopoly of violence and taxation. In 

Nigeria, the military has used its weapons not only to harass, but to extort money from innocent and 

defenceless citizens. In December 1968, "a combined team of police and army opened fire on (tax) 

agitators" in Western State. At the end of the demonstrations, "it was estimated that more than fifty 

people had been killed in different parts of the state with several more wounded." (Drum, 1969). This 

type of state violence has replayed itself times without number in the country. 

State monopoly can be viewed from another angle. The federal government enjoys some certain 

monopoly of taxing powers as contained in the constitution. 3 It also enjoys monopoly over the armed 

forces (the army, the air force and navy), the police and other para-military bodies.Human (1995:20) 

provides explanation for the State’s monopoly of violence: 

States justify the violence they use to this end by saying that they cannot do the good that they do for their societies if they are not given 

the right of ultimate recourse to violence against those who impede, resist or impair their efforts. To forestall a situation where, in every 

case, individuals or groups of people resist their actions, states have to employ violent means; states establish their control over society 

by demanding a monopoly over the means of violence. ... Hence the force used by the state is sometimes referred to as 'legitimate'. 

Violence used by any one else in society is seen as 'illegitimate.' 

Human’s argument appears reasonable and logical provided it is not turned to oppression of citizens. 

Some scholars have dealt with specific aspects of public finance in Nigeria. Adedeji (1969) reviews 

Nigeria’s fiscal policy from 1946 to 1969; Mbanefoh and Anyanwu (1990) deal with the constitutional 

role of revenue mobilization and allocation among the various tiers of government; and Adesola (1989) 

examines the machinery for collection and disbursement of public funds in Nigeria with a prescription 

for the aborted Third Republic. A great deal of work has also been devoted to tax administration in 

Nigeria. They include (Adesola, 1986; Okele, 1986; Omopariola and Nassar, 1986; Oyelere and 

Oyewole, 1986; Oribabor, 1986). Others have limited their scope to local government finance. In this 

category, are Adedeji and Rowland (1971) and Bello-Imam (1989). The intellectual and theoretical 

discourse has shown that the subject of taxation and fiscal policy has received substantial attention; 

although not from governance perspective, which is the focus of this paper. 

Nigerian governance: historical and geographical profile 

Nigerian governance environment can best be understood within its political, historical and 

geographical profile. The amalgamation of the Southern and Northern Protectorates and the Lagos 

Colony gave birth to Nigeria from a motley of nationalities and ethnic groups on January 1, 1914 . In 

1954, the country adopted a federal system and attained Independence on October 1960 with 

Westminster Parliamentary system of government. The federal system has transmuted from a twotiered 

federal structure, comprising three unequal regions to a three-tiered federal system of 36 states, 

one federal capital territory (FCT) and 774 local governments. Nigeria is 924,000 square kilometres 

with two distinct climatic zones - the tropical south and the hot, dry north. Three main cultural groups 

3See item 39 of the Exclusive Legislative List of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. 

128


dominate, situated in the southwest (Yorubaland), the southeast (Igboland) and the north 

(Hausaland/Borno). In all, there are over 300 different ethnic groups with as many languages and over 

1,000 dialects. Nigeria’s population was 88.9 million in 1991 and estimated as 129.9 million in 2001 

by the World Bank. 

Fiscal policy and taxation in nigeria 

This section is an overview of federal revenue in Nigeria. Up till late 1960s, custom and excise duties 

dominated the federal revenue. Table one shows that customs and excise duties topped with 68.1% in 

1959/60 and 1969/70; followed by direct tax (9.4%); mining (8.1%); and interests and payments 6.1%. 

The remaining revenues were not significant as seen in the table. From mid 1970s, oil rents became 

dominant in Nigeria's economy. It increased from 26.3% in 1970 to 77.4% in 1975 and 81% in 1980. 

Oil revenue started to decline from early 1980s. In 1981 oil revenue reduced sharply to 64.4%. (CBN, 

1997). Despite this, as a monolithic economy, oil revenue remains dominant. In 2001 proceeds from 

oil accounted for 76.5% of the total federal revenue. 

The period preceding 1950 was characterized by a strong central government in fiscal matters. 

As late as 1951, the federal government took almost 100% of the total revenue that accrued to the 

nation's accounts with almost no share for the regional governments. This trend changed in 1954 when 

the recommendations of Hicks-Philipson Commission of 1951 which gave regional governments 

considerable fiscal powers were implemented. The 1951 Constitution embraced the recommendations 

and for the first time, gave the regional governments some measure of autonomy on revenues and tax 

jurisdictions. Regions were to have shares from all revenues accruing to the centre from direct and 

indirect taxes. Consequently, in 1954, regional governments had a share of 28.6% of the total federal 

revenue, while the federal government retained 71.4%. In 1959, the revenue share of regional 

governments slightly dropped to 21.8%, while that of the federal government witnessed an upward 

review (78.2%). This was occasioned by the fiscal revision commission of 1958 headed by Jeremy 

Raisman. The Commission emphasised the principle of population rather than that of derivation, which 

was earlier emphasized by the Chick's Commission. The regional share of federal revenues witnessed a 

slight rise in 1965 and 1975 to 23.6% and 26.4% respectively, while that of the federal government fell 

to 76.4% and 73.6% in 1965 and 1975 respectively. 

Between 1961 and 1969, certain political developments occurred which necessitated 

adjustments in the existing federal fiscal arrangements. These included the loss of Southern Cameroon 

in 1961, the creation of the Midwest Region in 1963, and the Military Decree No. 15 of 27th May, 

1967 which balkanised the four regions into 12 states. The Binn's recommendations which formed the 

basis for the working of federal finance until 1967 emphasised the principle of fiscal needs. To redress 

the problems that emanated from this, Dina Commission was set up in July 1968. 4 The committee 

submitted its report in February 1969 and pointed out the problem of great imbalance in economic 

development among the various states of the federation, and accordingly made strong 

recommendations that fiscal needs should form the basis of revenue sharing among the various states 

of the federation. Revenue sharing in the country has not been without trauma, confusion, strife and 

conflicts. Several ad hoc commissions and committees were set up by government to address the 

problems. There were the following ad hoc Fiscal Review Commissions between 1946 and 1969: 

• Philipson Commission (1946) 

• Hicks Philipson (1951) 

• Chicks Commission (1953) 

• Raisman Commission (1959) 

4 Dina Commission is significant because members of the previous commissions (1954, 1958 and 1964) were foreigners drawn from the United Kingdom or Australia; the 1968 

commission consisted of Nigerians (See Awa 1976:70). 

129

• Binns Commission (1964) 

• Dina Committee (1968) 


The major achievements of these early fiscal policies were summarised by Danjuma 5 (1992) as 

follows: 

• the establishment of regional/state government autonomy over certain revenue sources (e.g. 

personal income tax); 

• the establishment of federal government exclusive control of some revenue sources (e.g. armed 

forces income tax); 

• the creation of a Distributable Pool Account into which other revenues (including import and 

export taxes, mining rents and royalties, etc) were paid and which was subsequently distributed 

between the federal, and region/state governments; 

• the development of revenue allocation principles, such as derivation, population, even 

development, etc on the basis of which funds in the Distributable Pool Account were shared 

among regions/states. 

Between 1977 and 1984 a more comprehensive federal fiscal arrangements were put in place. Some of 

the fiscal arrangements during this period include: 

• Aboyade Committee (1977) 

• Okigbo Commission (1980) 

• Allocation of Revenue Act (1981) 

• Allocation of Revenue Amendment Decree (1984) 

As part of the transition programme to the Second Republic, General Olusegun Obasanjo 

Military administration appointed the Aboyade Technical Committee on Revenue Allocation in 1977 

to review the inter-governmental tax jurisdiction and revenue allocation arrangement in order to 

facilitate better efficiency in the working of fiscal federalism. The Committee recommended that all 

federally-collected revenue (except the personal income tax of the Armed Forces, External Affairs 

Officers and Federal Capital Territory) be consolidated into one account, which would be shared by the 

federal, states and local governments, using the following percentages: 

Federal Government - 57 

State Government - 30 

Local Government - 10 

Special Grants - 03 

Total - 100 

In addition to the 10% share for local governments, each state was to contribute 10% of its total 

revenue to the share of its constituent local governments. This was subsequently reviewed to 10% of 

state's internally generated revenue. Most states of the federation never honoured this arrangement. The 

special grants account was earmarked to deal with problems requiring special provision, such as oil 

pollution, general national ecological degradation, national emergencies and disasters. Aboyade's 

report was later jettisoned as it was regarded to be too technical for practical implementation. 

(Danjuma, 1992). Okigbo Committee was set up by President Shehu Shagari on November 21, 1979, 

barely a month of assuming office on October 1, 1979. The Committee which put into consideration 

5 Lt. General Theophilus Y. Danjuma (Rtd) was the Chairman, National Revenue Mobilisation, Allocation and Fiscal Commission. 

130


the twin objectives of equity and efficiency recommended that the federal account be shared, using the 

following percentages: 

Federal Government - 53 

State Government - 30 

Local Government - 10 

Special Fund to be distributed 

as follows: 

Initial development of FCT - 2.5 

Mineral producing areas - 2.0 

Ecological and other disaster - 1.5 

Total - 100 

The Government White Paper on Okigbo's Committee Report amended the recommendations and 

came out with the following percentages: Federal Government (55%); State Government (30%); Local 

Government (8%); Development of Federal Capital Territory (2.5%); Mineral Producing States 

(Derivation) (2%); Development of Mineral producing areas (1.5%); General Ecological Problems 

(1%). The Revenue Act was enacted in 1981 and it upheld most of the recommendations of 

Government White Paper, except in few areas. The State had an upward review from 30% to 30.5%; 

and also Local Government from 8% to 10%; while the development of Federal Capital Territory was 

totally scraped. An Amendment was made in 1984 which mainly affected the State with an upward 

review from 30.5% to 32.5%. 

The federal fiscal arrangement in the country did not witness any major change until in 1988 

when "The National Revenue Mobilization, Allocation and Fiscal Commission" was established by 

Decree No. 49 of 1989 by General Ibrahim Babangida, as part of the transition programme to civilian 

rule. The commission which was headed by Lt. General T.Y. Danjuma (Rtd) drew most of its members 

from the academics. At the inauguration on September 6, 1988, the commission had nine members. 6 

Later, the composition of membership was changed to have a chairman and one member from each 

state of the federation as a representative. Unlike in the past when ad hoc committees/commissions 

were set up to review fiscal arrangements, the Commission which was more of a permanent institution 

was charged with the following responsibilities: 

• systematic design and effective mobilisation of all sources of public sector revenues; 

• periodic review of the revenue allocation principles and formulae such that would minimise 

short-term political pressure; 

• prescription and application of revenue allocation formulae after due approval by the federal 

government for the purpose of sharing the Federation Account between the federal, state and 

local governments; 

monitoring the accruals and disbursement of revenue from the Federal Account, the States Joint 

Account, the Local Government Joint Account, the various Special Purposes Accounts and such other 

Accounts that may from time to time be established or designated by the Commission with the 

approval of the federal government; 

6The members included: Lt. General T.Y. Danjuma ((Rtd) - Chairman, Dr. A.S. Abam - Secretary, Professor M.O. Kayode, Professor Chike Obi, Professor G.I. 

Osayinwese, Professor U. Damachi, Mrs. O. Olakunrin, Alhaji A. Abdullahi, Alhaji Umaru Mutallab. 

131


• ensure full compliance with established revenue sharing arrangements as well as full public 

accountability for all funds so allocated to various governments and/or agencies involved in the 

disposition of the Federation Account; 

• liaise with the National Planning Commission and similar statutory bodies in the orderly fiscal 

development of each other tier of government; 

• collaborate with all layers of government as well as their ministries, departments, agencies, and 

extra-ministerial units in the prompt, regular, and faithful production of public financial 

statistics; 

• determination of the remuneration which it may deem appropriate for political office holders 

such as members of the executive and legislative branches of government outside the 

Consolidated Account; 

• commissioning, undertaking or sponsoring studies, analyses and deliberations on subjects 

which may bear directly or impinge significantly on the policy and operation domains of 

federal fiscal system and inter-governmental financial relations; 

• making whatsoever general or specific recommendations as the Commission may consider 

necessary for more effective mobilisation, collection, allocation and distribution of federal, 

state and local government revenues, as well as providing guidelines for their efficient 

implementation; and 

• submitting regular and timely annual reports to the federal government on its general activities 

over and beyond its specific recommendations or ad hoc submissions on particular subjects, 

with such annual reports also incorporating the Commission's audited accounts. 

The Commission came up with its first major recommendations on a new allocation formula 

which was approved by the Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC) and became operational with effect 

from January 1990. See Table One. Appraising the commission, it has not performed creditably in 

mobilising resources which was its primary assignment. Its major pre-occupation was revenue sharing 

which led its reneging on its other functions. 

The last major fiscal review was in 1992, when the Federal Government increased the share of 

the Local Government from Federation Account from 15% to 20%, and reduced that the States from 

30% to 25%. The arrangement was occasioned by the transferring of the management and funding of 

primary education to local government with effect from January 1991. In June 1992, a new revenue 

allocation formula was announced that further reduced the states' share from 25% to 24% but doubled 

the general ecology fund and the development of mineral producing areas fund from 1% to 2% and 

1.5% to 3% respectively. Table Four shows actual federal fiscal transfers to state and local 

governments in Nigeria between 1976 and 2001. The fiscal transfers to state governments during the 

period under review have not been consistent. It ranges from 7.8% (the lowest) in 1996 and 30.5% (the 

highest) in 1982. On the other hand, federal actual transfers to local governments have increased 

progressively from 1.7% 1976 to 16% in 1990 and 20% in 1998. The regime of General Babangida 

administration committed huge financial resources to local government in the country. From 1991, 

actual federal transfers to local governments began to witness a downward trend - from 16% in 1990 to 

3.5% in 1997. 

The experience of fiscal policies in Nigeria portends not only a dangerous trend, but seems 

threatening and disappointing, since the emphasis has always been on revenue sharing, rather than 

resource mobilization. The most threatening aspect of Nigerian fiscal federalism is its dependence 

syndrome on oil rents. State and local governments across the country depend largely on federal 

financial transfers. Their internal revenues have continued to dwindle unabated. Statistics shows that 

federal transfers to local governments constitute over 90% of their total revenues. Taxation has 

virtually been neglected in the country. Value-Added Tax (VAT) remains the only active tax apart 

from Pay as you earn (PAYE) deducted from workers. VAT was introduced in 1994. Its contribution to 

federal revenue was 3.6% in 1994, with progressive increase to 4.6% in 1995; 5.9% in 1996 and 7.9% 

in 1999, but decreased to 3.0% in Year 2000 and slightly moved to 4.1% in Year 2001. A viable tax 

132


like the property rate is neglected for lack of political will to put appropriate legislations in place for 

local governments. Existing tax laws in the country are rather obsolete and cannot face the challenges 

of the 21 st century except they are reviewed. 

Vi. Conclusions and conjectures 

Nigerian fiscal federalism from 1914 to date portends a bleak scenario. Most efforts have been geared 

toward sharing rather than mobilizing of resources. The rents from oil have been wrongly appropriated, 

looted and squandered by successive governments coupled with lack of transparency and 

accountability from leaders in the three tiers of government. Public enterprises and corporations are 

badly managed. Services such as electricity, telecommunication, postal, water, health and education are 

epileptic and erratic despite large subventions from government. The economy remains a monolithic 

one, resulting from lack of investment of the oil monies in other sectors (such as agriculture, iron and 

steel industry, technology etc), which are capable of yielding revenues for the country. Consequently, 

all tiers of government have consistently depended on oil rents since the 1970s. 

The incursion of the military into Nigeria's politics since 1966 has aggravated the governance 

crises rather than addressed them. While successive military administrations have succeeded in 

breaking up the federal structure into more sub-national units, they have failed in all other areas of 

governance – transparency and accountability, economic development, fiscal policy and 

democratisation. The 1979, 1989, 1995 7 and 1999 Constitutions designed by the Military clearly 

reflected its bias for centralization. The constitutional status of state and local governments is made 

subordinate to the federal government in many respects. Their taxing powers are not only limited but 

are encroached upon by the federal government at will. The federal exclusive legislative list of the 

1999 Constitution contains 68 items, whereas the concurrent legislative list (federal and state 

legislative powers) has only 30 items. Local government is conspicuously absent from the list. Local 

government taxing powers are determined by the State House of Assembly. During military regimes, 

local governments are placed under the Office of the Chief of General Staff (CGS) at the federal level 

and supervised by the Governor's Office or Deputy Governor's Office at the state level. A review of the 

Constitution is required to reflect a true federal system as practised in advanced countries such as the 

United States and Canada. 

The general misconception of governance by citizens to mean sharing and looting of national 

resources complicates the matter. Revenues from oil are seen as national cake meant to be shared. A 

new orientation of governance is required for both rulers and the ruled. Similarly, a re-definition of 

Nigeria federal system is a sine-qua-non as one way of addressing the governance crises and fiscal 

problems. Some have advocated a weak centre and strong units as a means of curbing the excesses of 

the federal government. Taxing powers for States and local governments with appropriate legislative 

backings are equally necessary to facilitate their autonomy within the federation. For effective federal 

system, the various units comprising the federation must be allowed to control some of their affairs in 

their own way with their own resources. (Awa, 1976:64). The National Revenue Mobilization, 

Allocation and Fiscal Commission needs to be resuscitated and centres Its activities on revenue 

mobilization rather than distribution of fiscal resources. Composition of memberships of the 

Commission should reflect all stake-holders including communities where resources are extracted. 

Proper accountability, transparency and honesty are necessary for sustaining democratic governance in 

Nigeria. It is reiterated that all existing and potential sources of revenue must be maximally explored 

and managed. In conclusion, an effective management of the symbiotic relationship between 

governance and taxation is capable of producing good fiscal policy. 

7The 1995 Constitution designed by late General Sani Abacha military administration has been jettisoned. That of 1989 was not allowed to operate before the Third Republic was 

aborted in 1993. 

133

Appendices 


Table One: Average Contribution to Federal Revenue 1959/60-1969/70 

Source % 

1. Customs and Excise 68.1 

2. Direct Taxes 9.4 

3. Licences and internal revenue 0.8 

4. Mining 8.1 

5. Earnings and sales 0.9 

6. Rent of Government Property 0.3 

7. Interests and Payments 6.1% 

8. Reimbursements 0.9 

9. Miscellaneous 3.4 

Source: F.S. Idachaba "Statistical Evidence on Tax Revenue Instability in Nigeria in Quarterly Journal 

of Administration Volume IX, Number Three, April 1975. 

Table Two Federal Revenue: 1970-2001 

Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1998 2001 

Oil Revenue 26.3 77.4 81.0 72.6 73.3 70.5 62.4 76.5 

Non-oil Revenue 73.7 22.6 19.0 27.4 26.7 29.5 37.6 33.5 

Company Income Tax 7.2 4.7 3.8 6.7 3.0 4.8 7.2 3.1 

Customs & Excise 58.3 13.8 11.9 13.7 8.8 8.1 12.4 7.6 

Value Added Tax - - - - 8.1 7.9 4.1 

Privatisation Proceeds - - - - - - - 3.5 

FG Indep Rev* 8.1 4.0 3.2 6.2 1.8 4.4 2.5 1.2 

Education Tax - - - - - - - 0.7 

Others** - - - - 13.1 7.6 7.5 1.1 

Sources: 

1. Central Bank of Nigeria (1997) Statistical Bulletin Volume 8, Number 1, June 1997 

2. Central Bank of Nigeria (1998, 2001) Annual Reports and Statements of Accounts 

* Federal Government Independent revenue comprises revenue from interest payments, rents on 

government properties, personal income tax of Armed Forces, Police, External Affairs and federal 

Capital residents, GSM. 

** Others: This item includes drawn-down from Fertiliser Reserves, Customs Levies, 

Subvention/Grants, and Sterilised Oil Windfall Proceeds and Grants. 

134


Table Three: Vertical Allocation: Commission’s Recommendations and Government’s Approval 

Beneficiaries Commission's 


135 

(in %) 

Government’s 

Approval {in %) 

Federal Government 47 50 

State Government 30 30 

Local Government 15 15 

Special Funds: 8 5 

a. FCT (FA) 1 1 

• Stabilization (FA) 0.5 0.5 

• Savings (FA) 2 0 

• Derivation (MR) 2 1 

• Development of oil producing areas (MR) 1.5 1.5 

• Development of Non-oil producing areas (NOMR) 0.5 0 

• General Ecology (FA) 0.5 1 

Notes: FA = Federal Account 

MR = Mineral Revenue 

NOMR = Non-Oil Mineral Revenue 

Source: T.Y. Danjuma "Revenue Sharing and the Political Economy of Federalism" (Paper delivered at 

the National Conference on Federalism and Nation Building: The Challenges of the Twenty First 

Century, organized by the National Council on Intergovernmental Relations, 14th -18th December, 

1992 at Sheraton Hotel Towers, Abuja), pages 20-21.


Table Four: Federal Transfers to State and Local Governments in Nigeria from Federation Account, 

1976 – 1998 

Fiscal 

Year 

State Govts 

(Naira 

Million) 

% of Federal 

Revenue 

136 

Local Govts 

(Naira Million) 

% of Federal 

Revenue 

1976 n.a. n.a. 100.0 1.7 

1977 n.a. n.a. 250.0 4.2 

1978 1,37.1 24.0 150.0 2.2 

1979 2,642.4 24.2 261.2 2.4 

1980 3,776 23.8 352.6 2.2 

1981 3,825.6 25.9 1,085.0 7.3 

1982 3,095.3 30.5 1,018.7 8.0 

1983 E 2,538.8 23.4 996.8 9.1 

1984 2,799 25.1 1,061.5 9.5 

1985 3,260.8 22.3 1,327.5 8.5 

1986 2,843.8 23.1 1,166.9 9.5 

1987 6,197.1 24.6 2,117.8 8.4 

1988 8,181.3 29.9 2,727.1 10.1 

1989 11,502.1 22.8 3,399.3 10.0 

1990 13,509.7 20.2 7,780.0 16.0 

1991 19,742 19.5 10,199.0 13.0 

1992 24,497.3 12.8 15,720.0 11.3 

1993 29,363.5 15.2 18,316.4 9.5 

1994 29,017.5 14.3 17,321.3 8.5 

1995 38,385.2 8.3 17,983.4 3.9 

1996 40,619.1 7.8 21,590.6 4.1 

1997 50,902.5 8.7 20,443.3 3.5 

1998 61,759.5 24.0 51,466.2 20.0 

1999 108,214.8 18.6 90,179.2 15.5 

2000 248,561.7 19.6 207,146.6 16.4 

Source: Central Bank of Nigeria Annual Report and Statement of Accounts (1977-2000). 

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138


Impact of Government-Based Strategy 

on Employment Generation and Poverty 

Alleviation in Nigeria 

Benjamin Ayodele Folorunso and Janet O. Olusi 

Department of Economics 


Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria 

Abstract 

The paper analyzed the effects of poverty alleviation and employment programme of 

NEEDS on the key targeted groups in Osun State of Nigeria. The study employed 

structured questionnaire in eliciting information from members of the target groups through 

interview method. Adopting qualitative techniques of analysis, factors that constituted 

obstacles to the advancement of Osun state in the areas of employment generation and 

poverty reduction were identified. The study found that obstacle to poverty reduction and 

employment generation was the lack of adequate empowerment on the part of the members 

of target groups; members had little education and lack financial opportunities. 

Programmes' effects had been minimal since the level of poverty is still very high despite 

the acclaimed efforts of NEEDS to encourage entrepreneurship in the state. This was, 

however, due to poor policy implementation; empowerment materials are distributed using 

political factors rather than economic factors. Youths, rural women and the disabled are 

mostly affected because their empowerment levels were lower relative to men's. The paper 

therefore suggests proper implementation of NEEDS policy by empowering every 

members of the target groups irrespective of their political affiliation. 

Key Words: Poverty Alleviation, Employment, Empowerment, Public Policy. 

Introduction: 

Given its excruciating effects on human development, poverty alleviation remains the focus of 

national, state and local development programmes. Poverty is a vicious circle that keeps the poor in a 

state of destitution and disillusionment. In its absolute term, poverty is defined as the inability of the 

individual or household to command sufficient resources to satisfy basic needs. These basic needs 

include food, clothing, shelter, education, health care, access to safe drinking water, and other non-food 

necessities of life (Fields, 1980 and 1997). These requirements are expressed in local monetary units 

as the poverty line. An individual or household is then classified as poor if its income or consumption 

is below the poverty line and non-poor if it is above. Often, the poor are known to have inadequate 

level of consumption (Aluko, 1975), illiterates with short life span (World Bank, 1996), unemployed 

and/or underemployed and cannot satisfy their basic health needs (Sancho, 1996). 

Reports of various studies have shown that a large proportion of Nigerians is poor (World 

Bank, 1999; UNDP, 2000). Indications are that the proportion of the poor people in the total 

population of Nigeria has increased significantly in recent years (CBN, 1999). In 1986 for instance, 

43.0 per cent of Nigerians lived below the poverty line. The proportion increased to 53.0 per cent in 

139


1996 and rose steeply, thereafter, reaching an estimated 66.0 per cent in 1999 and almost 70.0 per cent 

of population in 2003. Life expectancy at birth remained at an average of 52 years while adult literacy 

stood at 57.0 per cent. The census figures for 1991 clearly indicate that women account for 49.7 per 

cent of the Nigerian population. Studies have also shown that women are more affected by the 

growing poverty than men hence, the Nigerian government has introduced a number of poverty 

alleviation programmes to improve the life of its women (Obadan, 1995; Mongelle, 1995; Atoloye, 

1997; Englama and Bamidele, 1997; Bogunjoko, 1999; Fakiyesi, 2001). Notable among these are the 

Better Life for Rural Women Programme, Family Support Programme (FSP) and Women Trafficking 

and Child Labour Eradication Foundation (WOTCLEF). 

In an attempt to address the poverty issue, successive governments in Nigeria, in collaboration 

with various international organizations notably, the World Bank, United Nations Development 

Programmes (UNDP), United Nations Children Educational Fund (UNICEF) and United Nations 

Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) initiated specific multi-dimensional and multi-faceted 

programmes to meet the needs of the poor. These programmes focused on employment creation, 

improved welfare and increased productivity. They include the programmes undertaken by the 

National Directorate of Employment (NDE), a parastatal of the Federal Ministry of Employment, 

Labour and Productivity, which is responsible for the execution of National Employment Programmes 

(NEP), Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), Peoples and Community Banks 

as well as Better Life programmes. 

The National Directorate of Employment was established by the National Directorate of 

Employment Act of 1989. The Directorate's main objective, like any other strategies, is the 

designation and implementation of programmes to combat mass unemployment. This is expected to be 

carried out by obtaining and maintaining a data bank on employment and vacancies in the country with 

a view to acting as a clearing house to link job seekers with vacancies in collaboration with other 

government agencies. In terms of their impacts on the targeted groups, all these initiatives achieved 

limited success owing largely to lack of commitment, continuity and coordination notwithstanding the 

huge financial resources committed to them. It was against this backdrop that the Obasanjo 

Administration, which came into power in May 1999, set up a panel to review, rationalize and 

harmonize the functions of all sundry poverty alleviation agencies, in order to enhance their 

effectiveness. 

The Poverty Alleviation Program (PAP) was, consequently introduced to bring immediate 

succour to Nigerians living below the poverty line. The PAP was geared towards socio-economic 

empowerment of the people which was to be achieved through programmes targeting provision of 

employment opportunities. The schemes under PAP include Youth Empowerment Scheme (YES), 

Rural Infrastructure Development Scheme (RIDS), Social Welfare Service Scheme (SOWESS) and 

Natural Resource and Conservative Scheme (NRDCS). The Federal government instituted a fund, to 

finance such projects as rural electrification, water supply, primary health care, agriculture, food 

security, education and direct employment of youths. Some of the projects embarked upon have given 

employment to about 225,000 people representing 0.2 per cent of the population (Taiwo, 2001). 

Despite the fact that substantial budgetary allocations were made, the impact of PAP was still only 

little felt. This probably explains why federal government replaced the PAP with the NEEDS in 2003. 

NEEDS, an acronym for National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy, is a 

medium term strategy (2003-2007) which derives from the country's long-term goals of poverty 

reduction, wealth creation, employment generation and value orientation. NEEDS is a nationally 

coordinated framework of action in close collaboration with the state chapter called State Economic 

Empowerment and Development Strategy (SEEDS) and local government chapter referred to as Local 

Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (LEEDS) and other stakeholders to consolidate 

on the achievement of the early years of the present government and build a solid foundation for the 

attainment of Nigeria's long-term vision of becoming the largest and strongest African economy and a 

key player in the world. NEEDS is to ensure that the entire poverty eradication institutional landscape 

140


is covered. NEEDS as policy statement is very clear and simple; it is aimed at developing human 

resources for higher productivity and self-sufficiency and eradication of poverty from the lives of every 

Nigerian citizen (NPC, 2004). 

The overall objective of establishing all the above-named structures and indeed NEEDS is to 

ensure that all poverty alleviation and employment programmes are implemented, coordinated and 

sustained such that the set targets are met. Also, there is a dire need for a structured framework for 

monitoring and evaluating the implementation of the employment and poverty alleviation programmes 

put in place. Thus, the question that readily comes to one's mind is whether NEEDS has met its 

targets. Indeed, the question of whether the goals of NEEDS programme have achieved has to be 

examined now and if not, what should be done. Yet in other words, how effective are 

NEEDS/SEEDS/LEEDS in solving unemployment and poverty problems in Osun state of Nigeria? 

What gap is left to be filled by NEEDS? In order to provide appropriate answers to the questions 

raised, the paper examines the impact of poverty alleviation and employment generation of 

NEEDS/SEEDS/LEEDS policy on target groups since its inception in 2003. 

The large population of Nigeria, growing urbanization, unemployment and poverty suggest the 

need for speed in evolving and implementing knowledge-based actions to avert the full blown of the 

epidemics. Thus, an important part of effort to combat unemployment and poverty epidemic requires 

quantitative investigation of the impact of NEEDS/SEEDS on the target groups. The prevalence of 

poverty and unemployment in Nigeria is becoming frighteningly high and thus a topical issue 

contemporarily. In essence, the paper is considered pertinent in light of the currently launched NEEDS 

in the country. The paper, therefore, assesses the impact of employment generation and poverty 

alleviation programmes of NEEDS strategy on poor people in Osun State of Nigeria. 

In order to put the discussion into proper context, the paper is organized into five sections. 

Following the introduction, section 2 focusses on background information of the study area (i.e., Osun 

State of Nigeria). Section 3 discusses the methodology adopted. While section 4 analyzes the results 

of survey, section 5 concludes the paper with appropriate recommendation. 

Background information on osun state: 

Geographical and demographical profile: 

Osun State was created on August 27 th , 1991 from the old Oyo state. The State lies approximately 

within latitudes 6 o 55 and 8 o 10 North and longitudes 3 o 55 and 5 o 05 East, and covers a total 

landmass of about 7,997.55 square kilometers. The area is underlain by rocks of the Basement 

Complex. Two specific rock groups are prominent. These are the migmatite complex which outcrop in 

Ilesa and Ife area and the metasediments found in Iwo and Ikire areas. The land surface of Osun State 

is generally undulating descending from an altitude of over 450 metres above sea level in the Osun and 

Ijesa areas, to 150 metres above sea level and below in the southern parts. These characteristics give 

rise to two main physiographic regions: a stretch of the Yoruba highlands to the north and the 

undulating lowland to the south. Prominent high ranges are found at Ilesa, Igbajo-Okemesi, Elu and 

Oba. Many rivers drain the state. The most prominent of these is Osun from which the state derives its 

name. Other major rivers are Oni, Shasha and Oba. 

The soils derive from the local geology and belong to the group of ferruginous tropical red 

soils. They are generally deep and of two types namely deep clayey soils formed on low smooth 

hillcrests and upper slopes, and the sandier hill wash soils on the lower slopes. The clayey soils are 

well drained and best support cocoa and coffee cultivation. The other group of soils are more suitable 

for cultivating local food crops such as yams, cassava and maize. Soil degradation and erosion are 

generally not serious but considerable hill wash occurs along hill slopes. Originally, virtually all parts 

of the state are under a rich low land tropical rain forest vegetation. Tracts of this original vegetation 

can still be found in forest reserves to the south. However, to a large extent, the vegetation has given in 

141


to a wide range of derivatives including secondary forests, cocoa-kolanut mosaics, palm tree groves, 

food crop farms and savanna especially in the north. Mature forest, however still exists in the Owu 

forest reserve at the southern part of the state. 

Osun state has its headquarters at Osogbo which is the most commercial centre. It is known to 

be a semi-urban state, having high number of rural towns relative to few urban centres; Osogbo, Ile-Ife 

and Ilesa towns. Osun state is dominated by the Yoruba ethnic group which is unified by a common 

language. Within this main linguistic group, there are several subgroups with distinctive dialects. They 

include the Osuns, Ifes, Ijesas and Igbominas. 

Apart from the Yoruba, large numbers of other ethnic groups are found in the state. The census 

figures for 1991 clearly indicate that Osun state has a population of 2.158 million. Males represented 

48.3 per cent while women accounted for 51.7 per cent of this figure (NPC, 1991). For grassroots 

administration, the state is divided into thirty (30) Local Government Areas. According to the 1991 

National Population Census the breakdown according to the 30 Local Government Areas are shown in 

Table 1. Using a growth rate of 2.83 per cent the projected population of Osun State for 2004 standa at 

3,101,974m. 

2.2 Socio-economic profile: 

The major occupations of people in rural communities of the state are farming, trading and 

crafts while public services and private industries such as banking and insurance services are available 

in the urban communities. Osogbo, the state headquarters, Ile-Ife and Ilesa are among the largest cities 

in Osun State. These cities, with few other rural areas enjoy good road network, adequate supply of 

pipe borne water, good telecommunication network, adequate power supply. Indeed, all features found 

in a typical first order settlement such as police and army barracks, radio and television stations, 

railway station, a dam to mention but few, are present in Osogbo. 

Osun state has a mixed dual economic system in which the ownership of the means of 

production is shared between public and private sectors, with the latter becoming increasingly involved 

in modern business sector in recent years. The other major feature of the economy is the concomitant 

existence of the subsistence industries of agriculture and handicrafts in which the majority of the 

population earn their living. Per capita income in 2001 was about=,N 230 while the majority of the 

people live on meager income from subsistence agriculture. The vast majority of farmers are engaged 

in subsistence farming. Dominant features such as migration and seasonal production, lack of modern 

agricultural implements and low capital inhibit productivity in the agricultural sector. 

The relatively large size of the labour force in Osun reflects the dominating role and the huge 

size of the agricultural sector. Agriculture, perhaps, remains the major source of employment for most 

people in the labour force. Yet, in Osun state today, except for a few government plantations, 

agriculture remains a subsistence activity. The apparent absence of a high technology sector and the 

reliance on the elementary sub-sector constitute a major concern for the government. Stimulated by 

the demand for labour in government forces and establishments, there has been a growth of interest in 

wage employment among Osun people. Thus, since its creation in 1991, the labour force has grown 

gradually, although moderately. Almost 40.0 per cent of the population were in labour force in 1991 

while active labour force 

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Table 1: Population and Land Area by LGAs 

S/No LGA Name Pop. 1991 Projected 

Population 2004 * 

Land Area 

(km 2 ) + 

Percent of state 

Land 

1 Atakumosa East 38105 54770 419.62 5.25 

2 Atakumosa West 60037 86293 502.01 6.28 

3 Aiyedaade 94777 136226 951.37 11.90 

4 Aiyedire 41636 59845 247.87 3.10 

5 Boluwaduro 42392 60932 132.75 1.66 

6 Boripe 82387 118202 107.07 1.34 

7 Ede North 69388 99734 107.55 1.35 

8 Ede South 72975 104890 183.72 2.30 

9 Egbedore 40293 60789 235.44 2.94 

10 Ejigbo 69366 99702 343.84 4.30 

11 Ife Central 96580 138818 168.92 2.11 

12 Ife East 95857 137779 164.46 2.06 

13 Ife North 127677 183515 708.91 8.86 

14 Ife South 88170 126730 647.32 8.09 

15 Ifedayo 24671 35460 201.30 2.51 

16 Ifelodun 76565 110050 110.92 1.39 

17 Ila 50585 72708 190.73 2.39 

18 Ilesa East 78471 112789 65.03 0.81 

19 Ilesa West 60974 87640 57.51 0.72 

20 Irepodun 80415 115583 54.47 0.68 

21 Irewole 77884 111945 233.35 2.92 

22 Isokan 56943 81846 237.02 2.96 

23 Iwo 105401 151497 246.26 3.08 

24 Obokun 61218 87991 464.72 5.81 

25 Odo-Otin 82314 118313 260.83 3.26 

26 Ola Oluwa 39454 56709 298.77 3.74 

27 Olorunda 83347 119798 85.07 1.06 

28 Oriade 80833 116184 447.99 5.60 

29 Orolu 73042 104986 76.24 0.95 

30 Osogbo 106386 152912 46.47 0.58 

State Total 2,158,143 3,101,974 7997.54 100 

Source: NPC 1991 

+ Digitalized map of Osun State. 

* 2001 Population Projection using 2.83 per cent annual population growth rate was about 65.0 per cent 

in 1999. FOS (2001) survey data has indicated that there were close to 1.0 million (representing 25.0 

per cent) wage-earners in Osun state. This represents an increase of 15.0 per cent since 1991. Based 

on the labour force sample survey, 1.65 millions (representing 55.0 per cent) are engaged in 

agriculture. Generally, wage employment in agriculture is an infinitesimal percentage of total wage 

employment; it was 0.6 per cent in urban areas and 1.2 per cent in rural areas in 1991. In contrast, nonagricultural 

wage employment in urban centres was 21.0 per cent and 1.5 per cent for rural areas during 

the same period. Survey data of FOS (2001) placed 49.0 per cent of Osun people as living below the 

poverty line in 1986. The ratio increased to 58.0 per cent in 1996 and rose steeply, thereafter, reaching 

an estimated 1.8million people representing 69.0 per cent of population in 2000. Life expectancy at 

birth remained at an average of 51 years while adult literacy stood at 55.0 per cent of the population. 

143


3 Methodology: 

3.1 Sources of data: 

The study employed both primary and secondary data. Secondary data used for analysis were 

obtained from various government units and departments including Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN), 

Federal Office of Statistics (FOS), National Population Commission (NPC) publications and the 

Federal Ministry of Employment, Labour and Productivity in Osogbo. The primary data are obtained 

through in-depth interview of members of target groups; men and women's groups, youth 

organizations, small scale industrialists, artisans and trade unions. 

3.2 Sample selection and techniques of data analysis: 

From the 30 local government areas (LGAs) in Osun state (see Table 1), four local government 

areas were purposively selected for the generation of primary data. Two of these, Olorunda and Ilesa- 

West, are urban while the other two, Ede North and Egbedore, are rural. These 4 LGAs are located not 

too far from the seat of power. Whatever is obtained here is considered to be a good reflection of the 

impact of government especially with respect to employment and poverty alleviation. In each of these 

four LGAs, twenty members of the target groups of NEEDS were randomly selected and interviewed. 

Qualitative instrument of data collection was used. The instrument involves the use of structured 

questionnaire in the administration of in-depth interview. The questionnaire addresses various aspects 

of the issues raised by the research questions. 

Two hundred and sixty (260) in-depth interviews were conducted for eight (8) different target 

groups of NEEDS. The selection of a target group, however, depends solely on the existence of the 

group in the selected local government areas. This is the case with Women and Children Development 

Initiative Foundation (WOCDIF), Youth and Handicapped groups which were only found in urban 

centres. Table 2 shows the distribution of target groups for in-depth interview. The target groups used 

in data collection and their distributions are as follows: Women's group or WOCDIF (20); Farmers' 

group (40); Traders' group (40); Artisans' group (40); Small Scale Industrialists group (40); Youth 

group or Life Vanguards (20); Handicapped group (20); and National Union of Road and Transport 

Workers, NURTW (20). 

Table 2: Distribution of Target Groups for In-depth Interview 

Group Rural Urban Total 

Artisans/Craftmen 20 20 40 

Traders 20 20 40 

Women (WOCDIF) - 20 20 

Farmers 20 20 40 

Handicapped - 20 20 

Youth (Live Vanguards) - 20 20 

Transporters (NURTW) 20 20 40 

Small Scale Industrialists 20 20 40 

Total 100 160 260 

Simple qualitative techniques which allows a tracking of the main trends in the views of the 

respondent were carried out. For instance, on the issue of employment trend, we categorized 

perceptions of employment in the state and counted the number of respondents whose responses give 

some allusion to the main issue. The analysis of data is carried out by the use of qualitative methods. 

144


4 Analysis of survey data: 

The economic base of the state is presently very weak. The sector that is generating revenue 

and providing employment is the agricultural and forestry sector. Close to 80.0 per cent of the 

respondents were of the view that agricultural sector is still largely neglected despite the recent effort 

of the state government in the area of farm mechanization. Agriculture is largely weather dependent; 

when rains fail, crop do badly. Also, farmers do not often have access to farm inputs such as 

insecticides and fertilizers. Government has attempted to help many members of target groups of 

NEEDS programme. For instance, the Osun state government recently purchased 300 tractors for 

farmers use in the state. The effect of this action is yet to be felt. 

Evidence shows that social amenities are widely distributed in the state. These include market, 

electricity, pipe borne water, telephone and road networks. The study, however, shows that social 

amenities in Osun state are inadequate. For instance, most of the roads in the inner cities, even 

Osogbo, are in a state of disrepair. Pipe borne water supply is erratic as that of electricity although 

location like Ede North LGA enjoys relatively good supply. The inadequate functioning of these 

amenities were found to have discouraged private sector as regards investment projects in the state. 

Osun state needs to be first of all be empowered. 

The survey data indicate that the dominant economic resources of Osun state come from the 

agricultural and forestry sector. Substantial acreages of land are under food and cash crops. While the 

state is endowed with mineral resources, they are yet to be exploited to their full commercial scale. 

This is the same with tourism. In fact, farming, trading, craft, small scale enterprise and civil service 

dominate the occupation of people in Osogbo and Ilesa (urban centres) while farming and craft 

occupation dominate Ede and Awo (rural centres) with small percentage engaging in small scale 

enterprise and petty trading. As shown in Table 3, about 70.0 per cent and 7.5 per cent of the target 

population earn their living from subsistence farming and handicraft respectively. Only a small 

proportion (about 15.0 per cent) of the population are civil servants while 3.5 per cent and 2.2 per cent 

are petty traders and small scale industrialists respectively. 

It was also evident in survey data presented in Table 3 that high proportion of members of 

target groups are Osun state indigenes. Indeed, close to 90.0 per cent of farmer's settlers are natives 

while the remaining 10.0 per cent are non-natives. The population structure is similar for all other 

target groups examined. Members of the different groups interviewed ranged from 100 to a number as 

large as 5000. It was clear from the respondents that the main aim of forming these groups was to 

improve the general welfare of members through thrift and credit arrangements, acquisition of 

improved technical know-how, seeking for assistance and giving helping hands to vulnerable members. 

Also, some of the groups were formed in order to bail members out of poverty through economic 

empowerment. 

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Table 3: Composition and Structure of Employment Of Target Groups 

Occupation Composition 

Primary Secondary % of Native Non-native 

respondents (%) 

(%) 

Farming Artisans 69.5 89.2 10.2 

Artisans Farming 7.5 75.5 24.5 

Petty Trading Farming 3.5 75.0 25.0 

Civil Service Farming/Petty Trading 14.8 84.5 15.5 

Small Scale Enterprises Farming 2.2 55.8 44.2 

Transporters(NURTW) Farming 2.5 81.6 18.4 

Total 

Source: Survey Data (2004) 

100.0 76.8 23.2 

Except for Life Vanguards that is mainly for the youth, it was revealed that there was no age 

restriction to membership of groups. However, members must satisfy certain conditions such as 

engagement in some form of economic activities before their names can be registered. Also except for 

Life Vanguards, WOCDIF and Handicapped groups that were recently launched, all other target groups 

had been in existence for a period not less than 10 years. Indeed, the creation of Life Vanguards, 

WOCDIF and Handicapped groups were as a result of NEEDS in the state. 

Except for members of WOCDIF which are mainly women and NURTW and Bakers' 

association that are mainly men, members of each target group are of mixed gender and respondents 

feel that very large percentage of the members of these group were, indeed, poor. The survey data 

identified youth and women as the most target groups in NEEDS programme. This finding is 

supported by the operational guidelines of most poverty alleviation programmes (NEEDS inclusive) 

which ensure adequate consideration for youth and women as regards employment opportunities and 

poverty reduction. In spite of all policies and programmes aiming at improving women's lots in Osun 

State, records of poverty alleviation is not yet satisfactory. 

The survey result indicates that well over 50.0 per cent of the entire population is poor which 

indicates that previous national employment and poverty alleviation programmes are yet to have a 

positive impact on the life of poor people in Osun state. Indication of severe poverty among group 

members was reflected in the number of activities that respondents said members have to engage in to 

make ends meet. Except for youth and handicapped organizations, members were found to be engaged 

in more than one job. Apart from the dominant occupation which is reflected by the type and name of 

each group, members involved themselves in diverse occupations which are reported as secondary 

occupations in Table 3. Members are involved in multiple occupation simply to enhance their income 

generation as well as their standard of living. It is, therefore, easy to see an artisan who is also a civil 

servant and at the same time a farmer or a trader. In spite of combination of various jobs, 

unemployment and poverty still persist in Osun state. This, perhaps is due to subsistent nature of most 

sectors of the economy in which they were engaged. 

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Table 4: Poverty Situation in Osun State 

Monthly Income Access to Good Infrastructures (per cent) 

Water Power Road Education 

Group =,N Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No 

Farmers 2500 - 5000 27.5 72.5 37.5 62.5 30.0 70.0 25.0 75.0 

Artisans 2000 - 10000 30.0 70.0 37.5 62.5 35.0 65.0 20.0 80.0 

Petty Traders 1000 - 5000 40.0 60.0 32.5 67.5 30.0 70.0 30.0 70.0 

Civil 

Servants 

5000 - 35000 87.5 12.5 52.5 72.5 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 

Small Scale 

Industrialists 

5000 - 25000 75.0 25.0 45.0 55.0 52.5 72.5 62.5 37.5 

Transporters 3500 - 10000 25.0 75.0 37.5 62.5 25.0 75.0 12.5 87.5 

(NURTW) 

Youths NA 50.0 50.0 60.0 40.0 60.0 40.0 90.0 10.0 

Handicapped - 80.0 20.0 75.0 25.0 50.0 50.0 40.0 60.0 

WOCDIF NA 75.0 25.0 50.0 50.0 65.0 35.0 55.0 45.0 

Total in % 54.4% 45.6% 47.6% 52.4% 44.2% 55.8% 42.7% 57.3% 


As shown in Table 4, monthly income of group members were below the subsistence level. 

The small scale industrialists and petty traders generally had low profit margin with losses in most 

periods and this scenario has compelled many of them to wind down their businesses. Income of the 

members who were civil servants was between=,N 5000 and=,N 35000 per month while that of other 

target group members were far below this range. The income was generally low and not adequate to 

meet the basic needs of life. Except for the handicapped, youths and educated groups, majority of 

members were self-employed. Their income generating ability was low hence, the prevalence of 

poverty among them. 

Women, handicapped and youth can be said to form the majority of the unemployed in the 

state. For instance, less than 2.0 per cent of the qualified unemployed youth were employed in the last 

five years while it was less than 1.0 per cent for the handicapped group. Survey data in Table 4 clearly 

shows that women have fewer job opportunities and since 1999, women labour has just risen by at least 

5.0 per cent. Women's participation in the state development has been slow because they are mostly 

illiterates and this is partly due to their role as housewives. Up to two-third of women's group are 

illiterates. There exists marginalization and discrimination against women in job preferences in recent 

times in Osun state. One major reason as to why majority of women are poor and could not get job 

placement is attributed to "limited education". This according to them prevents women from getting 

civil service jobs and force them to go into petty trading. The same reason goes for members of 

National Union of Road Transport Workers (NURTW). Most people end up in this group because of 

limited education and for the fact that its skill acquisition requires very little appreciation. However, 

some members of NURTW in the state have received assistance of new vehicles and motorcycles. 

Government had in recent times donated a sizeable number of buses to the union, but the effort is yet to 

have impact on a larger proportion of this group as we have a large number of them who are 

unemployed that parade themselves as conductors and touts. In some cases, touts are even more in 

number than the drivers. 

147


Table 5: Poverty Alleviation and Employment Programmes of Government in Osun State 

Government Role Impact of NEEDS 

Group 

Significant 

(% of Res) 

Not 

Significant 

(% of Res) 

Improved 

Income 

(%) 

148 

Better 

Housing 

(%) 

Better 

Nutrition 

(%) 

Employment 

Generated up 

to 2004 

(% increase) 

Farmers 49.9 55.1 22.9 11.9 13.0 12.0 

Artisans 32.2 67.8 31.2 20.1 12.0 8.5 

Petty Traders 25.0 75.0 10.1 22.0 14.2 5.2 

Civil Servants 51.3 48.7 12.8 31.0 42.5 5.6 

Small Scale 

Industrialists 

35.8 64.2 9.4 18.7 25.1 1.8 

Youths 12.5 87.5 1.0 2.1 1.3 1.2 

Handicapped 5.0 95.0 0.2 0.1 1.5 0.9 

WOCDIF 48.6 51.4 6.8 7.8 22.7 4.7 

Transporters 

(NURTW) 

51.0 49.0 4.5 3.2 21.8 20.2 

Average 32.4 67.6 11.0 13.1 17.1 6.2 


Under the auspices of Live Vanguards (LIVA), 24 youth leaders (including disabled youths) 

have benefitted from LIVA youth development programmes. The programme seeks to empower and 

sensitize youths at the grassroots on civic education, good governance and principles of democracy. 

Youth have generally found LIVA programmes useful and worthwhile. It was also revealed that LIVA 

is currently involved in National Youth Exchange (NYE) programme between Osun and Enugu state. 

The exchange programme is expected to facilitate better understanding of cultural differences, promote 

integration and expose the youth in general, and Osun state's youths in particular to various vocational 

skills, arts and craft related to each community covered by the exchange. Youth aged 17-24 years are 

currently participating in the programme. It is opined that this step will ultimately increase 

employment opportunities and reduce poverty among the youths. Report indicates that one youthfriendly 

clinic was facilitated with drugs and equipment in Osogbo. In the area of health care, a 

weekly medicare is conducted for the youth at LIVA centre. 

Awareness of NEEDS and various agencies involved in its implementation is generally low. 

About 25.4 per cent of respondents are aware of these agencies involved while most respondents are 

not aware of NEEDS. However, awareness of the NEEDS by these few respondents came through 

media houses by paid advertisement over radio and television. Some members got the awareness 

through the ministry under which their business is classified. For instance, farmers got awareness of 

economic enhancement designed for them through the Ministry of Agriculture. 

It was observed in Table 5 that the existing poverty alleviation programmes in the state had not 

yielded significant success; their implementations were not encouraging. The expected positive 

impacts of these programmes are not well felt by the general populace. Except for certain seasons (like 

rainy period for farmers and celebration periods for artisan and traders) when members are fully 

employed, the employment situation in the state is described as poor. Table 5 clearly indicates that 

about 68.0 per cent of the respondents claimed that their local governments (LGs) have not played 

significant role in employment generation and poverty alleviation, except for about 15.0 per cent that 

claimed that some agro-allied business have been established while LGs have also helped in training 

and recruitment of members, health care scheme, creation of market places and mending of local roads. 

About 4.5 per cent identified provision of employment, giving of loan and advances and training of 

artisans as the major roles played by agencies responsible for such programmes. Less than 12.0 per 

cent claimed that more business and better income for members have been achieved while some


members had migrated to the urban centres. About 13.0 per cent claimed that the housing situation 

was adequate. 17.0 per cent were of the view that NEEDS had improved their nutritional habit. Some 

respondents, however, claimed that there was no direct relationship between their organizations and 

agencies responsible for NEEDS programme implementation. 

Survey data obtained also indicate that UNDP is a collaborator in employment generation and 

poverty alleviation programmes in the state. UNDP commenced its activities in Osun state between 

1995-1998. The major activities performed during the period was capacity building for relevant 

personnel in the state civil service that will execute programmes of activities. Workshops were also 

organized for these personnel. In the recent past, UNDP empowered rural populace including women 

by providing them with agro-allied equipment (such as palm oil processing machines) and credit 

facilities. Two vocational centres were also established; one at Ikirun and the other at Ilesa. Different 

trades are learnt in these centres by young school leavers or dropouts. The agency is, today, supporting 

the Osun state government in its policy to create 300,000 jobs for its citizenry. Other areas for which a 

blue print is being prepared are job creation at sustainable level and provision of basic infrastructural 

facilities towards poverty eradication and economic empowerment of people in the rural communities. 

National Employment Programme, through NDE has provided job for just 6.2 per cent of 

members which indicates that its impact is low. Survey reveals that people are facing a lot of problems 

when seeking for employment in the state. One major problem is the lack of general information as 

regards available job opportunities: people do not know where to go. There is high level iof unfairness 

as employment opportunities have been politicized. Another problem is inadequate planning on the 

part of government and individuals and probably the non availability of job opportunities. Generally, 

there is lack of creativity and people's orientation is poor. Many applicants are educationally 

incompetent coupled with lack of credits and financial assistance. Migration of people to urban centres 

as well as population explosion were also found to be the major causes of unemployment in the state. 

Self-employed people lack adequate capital and manpower, good equipment and access to markets. 

There is heavy reliance on government jobs which are not available given the poor state of the 

economy. 

5 Conclusion and recommendation: 

The study showed that a large proportion of people (about 70.0 per cent) of Osun state in 

Nigeria are poor. The poor in Osun state have limited access to savings and credit facilities, good 

roads, pipe borne water, innovative technology and output markets. Poor people in the state are 

predominantly in the agricultural sector and in petty trading, utilizing traditional inputs. Qualitatively, 

poverty in Osun state of Nigeria has many manifestations and various dimensions. These include 

joblessness, over-indebtedness, economic dependence, lack of freedom, lack of basic needs of life for 

household, lack of access to economic resources and inability to save and obtain credit. Poor people in 

Osun state live in dirty localities that put significant pressure on the physical environment, thereby 

contributing to environmental degradation. 

In spite of all previous programmes aiming at improving the lot of the poor, Osun state's 

records of employment generation and poverty alleviation have been rather low. The paper concludes 

that the current employment generation and poverty alleviation programme (NEEDS) in the state had 

not yielded significant success as its implementation is not encouraging. The expected positive impact 

of NEEDS programme is not yet felt by the general populace. It is, however, observed that women's 

status as full housewives is gradually changing in Osun state. In fact, women, like their men 

counterparts and youths are now being considered in the mainstream economic policies and NEEDS 

programmes which past programmes had failed to recognize. 

Inadequate access to employment opportunities has been identified as one of the major sources 

of poverty in the state. In fact, the employment situation among the target group members in urban 

centres can be described as poor while it is only fair in the rural areas. Major reason adduced is lack 

149


of access by the poor (members of the target groups) and small scale industrialists to physical assets 

such as land and capital as well as credits (funds) to initiate investment projects that will engage 

people. Also, the urban centres have witnessed a great influx of people from rural, who are in search 

of greener pasture. For this particular reason, pressure has been mounted on the limited economic 

resources and social amenities in urban centres in Osun state. 

Low level of industialization, a usual avenue for employment, over-concentration on 

government sector for employment were also identified as reasons for poor employment situation in 

the state. The study also identified, among other things, the belief that "the rich gets richer while the 

poor gets poorer" as another factor militating against poverty in the state. The so-called Nigerian 

factor which tacitly supports corruption, theft of public funds/materials, insincerity in policy execution, 

population growth, social and economic imbalance as observed by Mongelle (1995) were also found to 

have negative effects on employment creation and reduction in poverty in the state. In addition, the 

paper identified discrimination of all sorts, poor state of the economy and under-utilization of 

resources, lack of access to markets where the poor can sell and buy goods and services, and 

inadequate access to the means of supporting rural development accounted for the persistence of high 

unemployment and poverty rates in Osun state. 

There exists a big gap between the objectives of NEEDS programme and its achievement in 

terms of employment generation and alleviation of poverty. It is observed that NEEDS is a new 

programme but in order to rekindle the employment generation and ameliorate poverty through 

NEEDS certain steps have to be taken. One way of reducing unemployment and poverty in Osun state 

is developing human resources at the disposal of the state. There is no doubt that Osun state is 

endowed with abundant human resources but when the human resources are not adequately utilized, 

efforts channelled towards reduction of unemployment and poverty would not yield dividends. Thus, 

there should be adequate manpower planning. Indeed, the key to eliminating unemployment and 

poverty in Osun state is to empower all categories of poor people in the state. It is, therefore, 

suggested that empowerment of the people is a way out of the predicament. This empowerment should 

be in form of possession of adequate educational skill and finance. The sincerity of all the three tiers 

of governments in implementing such programmes is a necessary impetus for the success of these 

programmes. In addition, distribution of amenities should be based mainly on the "need" formula. 

Also, there is a dire need for further improvement in farming activities and strong 

diversification of the state economy. In this regard, the Osun state government should show more 

interest in promoting heavy industries. Above all, agriculture which is the mainstream of the economy 

should be supported by providing a variety of incentives to farmers. Embarkment on various 

agricultural programmes for unemployed youths and graduates and adequate provision of skill 

acquisition materials for the youths should be encouraged. Also, State Government effort at 

purchasing farm tools such as tractors and cutlasses to assists the farmers in the state should be 

intensified. Improvement in the patronage of local products and assistance to local manufacturers 

financially are also important. The continuity of these exercises and transparency on the part of the 

government will bring about a significant reduction in poverty in the state in the long run. 

Areas for future research: 

While the report provided here is an eye opener to employment generation and poverty 

alleviation situation vis-a-vis the activities of the agencies charged with it in Osun state, further studies 

that would include broad-based household survey are needed. This will help provide, among other 

things reliable basis for development planning targetted towards employment generation and poverty 

alleviation in Nigeria. By the time of preparing this report, the SEEDS and LEEDS aspects of NEEDS 

were just been launched. More time is still needed in order to be able to ascertain the actual impact of 

NEEDS programme in Osun state. The paper only examined some of the already existing poverty 

alleviation programmes in the state which NEEDS takes over from in recent time. 

150


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152


Making Education Services Work for Rural Population 

M. A. Adelabu 

Department of educational administration and planning 

Obafemi awolowo university, 

Ile-ife, 

Osun state 

Nigeria 

dupeadelabu@yahoo.com 

Introduction 

Since modern formal education was introduced in developing countries, there have been complaints 

that education was too academic, not preparing children for life. The relevance of education was 

challenged, particularly so, for rural areas ( Bergman 2002) This is not limited to primary education 

only but also touched on secondary education. In view of this the Education For All Program for Sub- 

Saharan Africa identifies the need to consider accelerated and non-formal alternative approach for 

teaching underserved children particularly in remote and deprived environments. The bricks and mortar 

systems of education appear not to have given desired results in terms of individual achievements and 

skill development. Schooling in rural areas often has little to offer and has produced unemployable and 

unemployed citizens without any marketable skills. Observations have also shown that the curricula 

and textbooks in primary and secondary schools are often urban-based irrelevant to the needs of rural 

people and seldom focused on crucial skills for life. 

One of the six Education For All (EFA) goals agreed upon at Dakar in year 2000 stipulates that 

learning needs of all young people and adults are to be met through equitable access to appropriate 

learning and lifeskill programs. This is important in Nigeria in particular because of some identified 

gaps in the education of the underserved rural population education. The rural population in Nigeria is 

about 70% of the total population. The rural youth and children represent a substantial majority of this 

population, yet their educational needs had been largely ignored. The rural schools operate the same 

syllabus and the same curriculum with the urban schools without addressing the common problems of 

the rural dwellers. The danger here is that a large number of learners in rural communities are 

subjected to curricula that are irrelevant and hence incapable of nurturing their individual potentials as 

well as their human rights. Today, growing up in the rural areas in Nigeria means growing up without a 

decent education. This implies that school attendance is generally low, absenteeism is high particularly 

during planting and harvesting seasons and drop out is generally high. Rural people are caught in the 

vicious cycle of having no access to quality education, to gainful employment and to other services that 

might lift them out of poverty. 

Seventy eight percent of the rural population and 34% of the urban population in Nigeria live below 

poverty line (Clearer and Donovan1995) see table 1. Education is a major determinant of poverty. Any 

education given therefore must not only be qualitative, but must also address the needs of the people. 

To this extent, the National Policy on Education (2005 revised.) section 1 (d) stipulates that there is 

need for functional education for the promotion of a progressive and united Nigeria. To this end, 

school programs need to be relevant, practical and comprehensive while interest and ability should 

determine individuals direction in education. Nigeria’s philosophy of education therefore is based on 

the integration of the individual into the community (section1, 5b). In consequence, the quality of 

153


instruction at all levels has to be oriented towards acquisition of competencies necessary for selfreliance 

(section 18c). Section 1: 9b stipulates that efforts should be made to relate education to overall 

community needs. (NPE 2005 revised). 

This study intends to search for a sustainable education by exploratory for alternative and 

complementary education to address the unique challenges of the rural communities. This can be 

achieved through a more relevant and sustainable link between out-of-school experiences on the one 

hand and organized formal learning experiences on the other. The study is predicated on the fact that 

learning usually occurs in the context of varying individual and social experiences and that the school 

is only one institution among many others where learning occurs or completely occurs. Learning can 

also take place in the community, because relevant human and material resources abound in every 

community. Because of this, the rural based education structure that will draw on existing resources in 

the society can be developed. 


(i) The study sets out 

(ii) To investigate the possibility of enlarging the scope of secondary education by complementing 

and reinforcing it with vocational and lifeskills. 

(iii) To assess the interests of parents and pupils interest in skill development and training within 

their immediate environment 

(iv) To identify areas of school-community partnership in students skill development and training. 

(v) To investigate perceived constraints to gainful employment of rural people. 

(vi) To develop recommendations for the sustainable development of education that will alleviate 

the poverty of rural people and make them escape out of poverty. 

Methodology 

This study was carried out in Egbedore Local Government Area of Osun State. The Local 

Government was chosen because of its rural nature This local government is made up of 56 rural 

communities with five secondary schools one technical college and 31 primary schools. The five 

communities where there are secondary schools were purposively targeted for the study. The target 

groups were policy makers (1), household heads (114), teachers (42) and students (210). Both 

qualitative and quantitative data were collected. Four sets of questionnaires were designed for each 

target group. The questionnaires were to determine the poverty level of the community, the community 

needs in relation to youth and adult employment and the aspirations and desires of the students in 

relation to skills development. 

Historical background 

Pre-independence Nigerian education system 

In the traditional African society, the warrior, the hunter, the noble man or anyone who 

combined the latter feature with a specific skill was adjudged to be a well educated and a well 

integrated citizen of his community Fafunwa (1995). The African education is an integrated 

experience, which combined manual activities with intellectual training. In short, the education was not 

compartmentalized as the formal western education. 

The pre-colonial and colonial education emphasized formal education particularly, reading, 

writing, arithmetic, with the introduction of a few core subjects including agriculture skill training and 

co-curricular activities such as gardening. As far back as 1922, the Phelps Stokes commission, which 

studied education in West Africa, produced a report which elaborated on the adaptation of education to 

the needs of individuals and the community. Hitherto, the educated Africans themselves had on several 

occasions criticized the colonial education system, which was too literally and too classical to be 

useful, and which resulted in overproduction of those who could write and talk and an undersupply of 

those who could till and repair. The commission further stated that since Africans live both in rural and 

154


urban areas, they required education suited to their life needs (that is agriculture for those in rural areas 

and industrial and technical skills for those in urban areas). Specifically, the commission stipulates that 

rural education should be organized to blend intimately with the lives of the groups from which the 

pupils come. The emergence of British colonial policy led to the 1925 memorandum of education 

which made a suggestion that education should be adapted to the local conditions in such away as to 

enable it to conserve all sound elements in local tradition and social organization while at the same 

time functioning as an instrument of progress and evolution. It also indicates that technical and 

vocational training should be carried out and that the educational system should seek to establish the 

dignity of manual vocations and promote their equality with clerical services. 

One of the major defects in the Nigerian Educational system is the lip service accorded to technical and 

vocational education. Indeed, technical education had a slow start in Nigeria, and developed less 

quickly than other forms of education. Till date, students would rather go to secondary schools and 

universities than technical colleges. The present 6-3-3-4 System of Education however tried to address 

this gap. 

The present Nigerian educational structure 

The National Policy on Education first published in 1977 stipulates a 6-3-3-4 system of 

education that is 6 years primary, 3 years junior secondary, 3 years senior secondary and 4 years 

university. The junior secondary school is both pre-vocational and academic. The specific objectives of 

the junior secondary school are to develop in the students manipulative skills, respect for dignity of 

labour and above all healthy attitude towards things technical. At the same time students are to be 

exposed to the usual basic academic courses. Students who complete junior secondary schools are 

streamlined into the following based on the results of tests to determine their ability. 

1. The senior secondary school 

2. The technical college 

3. Out of school vocational training centers. 

4. An apprenticeship scheme. 

However there have been automatic transitions from JSS3 to SS1. Adelabu (1989) Transition to 

technical colleges has not been recorded. The senior secondary school has diversified curriculum, but 

with less emphasis on vocational subjects. 

Technical and vocational education 

The technical and vocational education would have been a viable alternative to alleviate 

poverty particularly with the high unemployment rate in the country. The 6-3-3-4 education system 

makes technical colleges the only alternative (i.e. alternative to secondary education) route to further 

formal education whereby graduates of secondary schools at least can sustain themselves without 

government employment. Unfortunately, the vocational and technical schools are one option that is 

unpopular with both parents and their children. 


More than one billion people in the developing world continue to live in absolute poverty and 

struggling to survive on less than $370 a year or $1 a day (Akinlo 2001). 

Although poverty is not peculiar to the developing countries, but its incidence in developing countries 

has continued to rise. Nigeria has the highest poverty rate in Africa and rated below Kenya, Ghana and 

Zambia (The World Bank 1996). Poverty is a rural phenomenon as shown in table 1 below. About 

70% of Nigerians live in the rural areas In 1992, 34.7 millions Nigerians were in poverty, out of which 

11.9 millions and 22.8 millions were located in urban and rural areas respectively. Both incidence and 

155


depth of poverty were higher in rural areas than in urban ( Ogwumike 2001) while Adelabu (2001) 

found poverty to be widespread among people with low education, unstable employment, 

unemployment, low status job and absence of material possession all these factors are prevalent in and 

typical of rural areas. 

The marginalization of the rural areas through urban biased development policies is also largely 

responsible for high incidence of poverty in the rural areas. 

Table1: Percent of Population below the Poverty Line in African Countries, Early 1990s. 

Country Rural % Urban % 

Cameroun 71 25 

Cote d’ Ivoire 77 23 

Gambia 66 33 

Ghana 94 19 

Guinea-Bissau 58 24 

Kenya 41 20 

Lesotho 54 55 

Madagascar 37 44 

Malawi 63 10 

Mali n.a. 50 

Nigeria 78 34 

Tanzania 59 61 

Uganda 57 38 

Zaire 76 32 

Zambia 85 46 

Source: Clearer and Donovan 1995. 

At least 50 percent of the poor in Africa were from far east African countries and Nigeria. 

.Both secondary and tertiary graduates and school-drop-outs rush to the urban centers because of 

unrealistic expectations of gainful employment in the cities and because of the hopeless rural 

alternatives. Invariably, most of them are unable to be gainfully employed or unemployable (Adelabu 

1981). According to Omideyi (2000) the decisions of the rural dwellers to migrate are usually informed 

primarily by economic considerations particularly when they are unable to satisfy their aspirations 

within the existing opportunity structure in their locality. She further said that rural–urban migration 

still persists even in the face of worsening urban unemployment and prospects of better living in the 

rural agricultural areas . The number of the rural poor is said to be roughly twice that of the urban poor, 

while the depth of poverty is more than double in rural areas (The World Bank 1996). These rural 

dwellers who are predominantly farmers, who though hardworking are producers whose output and 

earnings are principally from agricultural activities, are inversely proportional to the efforts they put to 

their work. This is because they lack the adequate infrastructures such as good roads, transportation 

and credit facilities needed to promote their products and trade. The consequence of this is low or poor 

socio-economic status of the rural households (Adelabu 2001). 

One of the broad aims of secondary education as stipulated in the National Policy on 

Education is “preparation” for useful living, but there is no evidence that the curriculum and training in 

the secondary schools have fulfilled this objective. The secondary schools have failed in producing 

students who can be useful to themselves and to their immediate community. This is because according 

to Baike (2002), the educational system seems to be turning out graduates faster than the economy can 

give them job, hence a large scale unemployment of the graduates. Observation had shown that the 

education given to both the urban and rural students is to make them dependent on being employed as 

workers or job seekers. The consequences of this is a rural-urban exodus which shifted the burden of 

poverty to the urban areas yet according to Adelabu (2001) the cycle of poverty seems unbroken 

among the rural population where poverty is passed from generation to generation. Where job is 

156


available, the education of the rural dwellers is inadequate this is because given the deplorable 

conditions under which rural pupils learn, it will be too much to expect them to attain a level of 

performance comparable to that of children of urban schools ( Junaid and Umar 1991). 

To compound the problems of rural students, only few of them have employable skills to make 

their education useful in their community. Studies have also shown that parents because of their limited 

resources, level of poverty and inability to fund the cost of their children’s education often withdraw 

their children to contribute to the household economy (Adelabu 1992). The withdrawals are common 

during planting and harvesting seasons particularly in the rural agrarian communities. The present 

scenario therefore vindicates Nikolaus Vander Pas (2003) when he says there is need to search for a 

more relevant and sustainable link between out-of-school experience on the one hand, and organized 

learning experiences on the other becomes urgent in this extent and in keeping with the declarations of 

the second International Congress on Technical and vocational education (TVE) held in Seoul April 

1999. Nigeria had to meet her commitment to take lots of challenges one of which is enhancing the 

social prestige of TVE programmes, through creating an enabling psycho-pedagogical environments in 

the schools as well as enables socio-economic environment in the wider society (Obanya 2002). It is 

strongly believed that active involvements of families and the wider community in the teaching and 

learning process of children is fundamental to the development of an effective inclusive learning 

community (Christenson and Sheridan 2001: a, Simon and Epstein 2001: b). This community can 

provide resources both physical and personal to support a child’s learning. 

Towards this, this paper advocates building and implementing training in lifeskills into the 

secondary school curriculum in such a way that the community will be a learning laboratory for the 

students. 

This has become necessary for two reasons: 

(1) Parents are reluctant to send their children to purely technical colleges which they regard as 

inferior 

(2) Dearth of teachers who are trained in the vocational skills 

The inclination of young people towards white collar jobs could be changed by practically 

oriented curriculum towards production-oriented skills such as farming trades and crafts. These are 

more needed in development than office jobs. 

According to Bergman (2002) it is only legitimate to demand that what people learn during five to 

seven years have a direct bearing on their lives, that is, that they have an opportunity to acquire life 

skills. 

Ruralisation of education was meant to become directly relevant to conditions of life and work 

in rural areas. This meant adapting curriculum content to the realities of rural areas, adapting the school 

year to local and regional agricultural cycles and their labour requirements and including practical 

activities such as school gardening, school farmwork and animal husbandry. This has been an approach 

provided by UNESCO in the sixties and seventies ( Bucholz 1985-1986). 

Data analysis and findings 

Descriptive analysis ( percentages and frequency tables) were used were used to present the 

qualitative and quantitative data. In-depth interviews made were also summarized. 

The local government 

The local government under study is Egbedore local government. The local government is made 

up of 56 communities with an estimated population of about 40,293. There are only five public 

secondary schools and 31 public primary schools. The main occupation is farming with a little 

proportion of the population in petty trading. Their major public services in the area are: the local 

157


Government council (LGA) and the local government education authority (LGEA). Less than 3 % of 

the community members are wage earners, they are mainly teachers and civil servants. 

Household economy. 

All the 114 households heads were male this might be as a result of the traditional under- 

reporting of female headship. The age of house hold heads ranged between 30-70 yrs with the majority 

in the 50-60 years bracket. 

All the house hold heads were married with about 50% in polygamous marriages. 

Majority of the house hold heads have between 5-7 children with 56% of them as farmers while 21% 

are traders19% artisans and 4% in other menial jobs. The household heads derived their income from 

their various occupations occasionally subsided with child labour such as hawking of goods and farm 

products in cities and other neighboring towns. 

The Average monthly income of household heads is #16, 578 about $102. The average monthly 

expenditure is #9,994.8 about $80. 

This expenditure is mainly on food items leaving a paltry balance of #4.586 that is $22. It is from this 

balance that they buy clothes for the family, provide for the children’s school needs and purchase some 

other basic materials. This indicates that the general standard of living is low. 

Majority of the household heads in Nigeria are poor. In the rural areas, a significant number of 

the household heads under study are poor. Poverty was higher among households headed by those 

within the age groups 46-55 and 56-65. It was also observed that: 

• The older the household head, the higher the likelihood he or she will be lacking education and 

the household to live in poverty. 

• Poverty incidence by employment status shows that households headed by wage earners have 

less incidence of poverty but only about 1% of the household heads under study are wage 

earners. 

The socio-economic characteristic of policy makers that is the chairman of the local government who 

was the only policy maker in the sample is on the high side. He is a political head and his salary is on 

the high side. All local government chairmen, whether urban or rural earn the same salary. 

Only 42 secondary school teachers were in the sample. They were few because the sizes of the schools 

themselves were also small. All the teachers in the sample had the requisite qualifications for their 

jobs. Their teaching experiences ranged between 3 – 10 years and above. However, only three of the 

teachers had some vocational and technical experience hence the teachers were not competent to train 

students in their desired vocational skills. There were 210 students in the sample. Their age ranged 

from 11-20 years with the mean age of 17-19 years bracket. They were made up of 114 males 

(55.77%) and 93 females (44.23%) The family size of the students ranged from 4 to 11. This large size 

also affects the parents economy. The students said they eat 3 meals daily but further probing revealed 

that the meals were mainly carbohydrates and poor in quality. Findings also showed that the students 

always helped their parents in the farm and in other jobs to help as coping strategy. This also 

confirmed the low socio-economic level of their parents. The consequence of this is absenteeism and 

truancy thus resulting in low quality education, mass failure or outright drop out. 

Absenteesim 

The school teachers revealed that absenteeism and truancy were common phenomena in the schools. 

The trend in school absenteeism and the reasons for this as indicated by teachers are presented in tables 

2a and 2b below. 

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Table 2a: Students Absenteeism 

Period/Time of absence from school Per cent of time absent (%) 

Anytime 41 

Planting and harvesting season 34 

Market days 25 

Table 2b: Reasons for Absenteeism 

Reasons for absenteeism Per cent of absenteeism (%) 

Sickness 13.16 

Truancy 28.95 

School fees and other school materials 31.58 

Farm Activities 26.31 

The information contained in these tables in addition to the poor socio-economic background of 

students in rural areas led to parents withdrawing their children for labour in the farm and for other 

socio-economic activities. 

Rural-urban migration 

The interview with household heads, students and the policy maker revealed that a preponderant 

majority of graduates of secondary schools (males and females) who could not gain admission into 

tertiary institutions had left the villages to surrounding towns in search of trade and employment 

opportunities. Data on whether the household heads will like their wards to stay back in the village and 

whether students themselves will like to stay back in their villages or migrate to town and cities 

revealed preference for cities as shown in table 3 below. 

Table3: Rural or Urban Preferences 

Respondents Stay in village Go to cities for employment 

Household heads 40 (35.08%) 74 (64.92%) 

Students 60 (28.57%) 150 (71.43%) 

Policy maker 1 (100%) - 

The policy maker said that his preference is based on the fact that it is more desirable for the youths to 

stay back and develop their communities while the household heads indicated that going to the city to 

work is a way for their children to escape out of poverty. One of the household heads said ‘I want my 

children to work in the city and bring money home to offset my investments in their education and 

assist me financially”. 

The students themselves said that life is better in all ramifications in the urban than in the rural 

communities. 

Rural school curriculum 

Both the policy maker and the teachers identified some flaws in the existing curriculum of the rural 

schools. They all agreed that the schools in the rural areas should have the same curriculum with the 

schools in the urban so that the rural students will not be deficient. However they would welcome 

introduction of skills training like gardening, needle work/tailoring and other crafts alongside the 

159


normal formal school curriculum so as to take advantage of the local peculiarities in the communities. 

This is to enable the students sustain themselves after graduation and be self employed. 

Attitude to vocational and technical education 

Majority of the students and household heads indicated their dislikes for vocational and technical 

education. They regarded it as a dead-end meant only for those who could not secure admission into 

secondary schools. They also rejected a ruralized special education system which they said would not 

offer opportunities for further studies and for life outside the rural areas. However they all agreed that 

they would like skill training as a co-curricular school activity. Table 4 below shows students 

preference as regards skill training. 

Table 4: Preference of Skill Training. 

Skills Respondents(male) Respondent(female) Total % 

Hairdressing 7 24 31 14.76 

Farming 28 - 28 13.33 

Tailoring/sowing 18 38 56 26.67 

Catering 

services 

16 68 84 40.00 

Capentary 6 - 6 2.86 

Automechanic 

5 - 5 2.38 

Suprisingly only 13.33% of the students preferred skills in farming moreso that the predominant 

occupation in the rural areas is farming. Reasons for this might be because the students have had 

enough experience in the farm or the thought that farming should be left for those who did not go to 

school or for older people. However all the vocations chosen if praticalized will sustain the students 

and could make them self employed both in the urban and rural communities after their secondary 

school education. The future carrier aspirations of the students is shown below. 

160


Table 5: Future Career Aspirations of Students 

Careers Number % 

Accountant 58 27.62 

Economist 4 1.90 

Pastor 4 1.90 

Doctor 30 14.28 

Nursing 28 13.33 

Lawyer 18 8.57 

Engineering 16 7.62 

Teaching 20 9.52 

Barbing 10 4.77 

Lecturer 2 0.95 

Tailor 6 2.86 

Hairdressing 2 0.95 

Civil service 4 1.90 

Armed forces 2 0.95 

Trading 2 0.95 

Diplomat 2 0.95 

Others 2 0.95 

From the table above, one observes that the students’ carrier aspirations are not dramatically different 

from urban students aspirations. They have inclination for white collar jobs instead of production 

oriented jobs such as farming and others which are the jobs needed for self employment, income 

opportunities, community and national development. Because of the preferences of the students, it 

becomes difficult to advocate a completely different curriculum from students in the country. This will 

be denying them access to their future careers , hence, it is better to have a complementary alternative 

education for the rural dwellers. 

Community as learning centers 

All the people interviewed particularly household heads and teachers support the community and its 

resources as learning centers. The finding revealed that the pre-service training of teachers is deficient 

or totally lacking in vocational and skill training. A lot of physical and human resources abound in the 

communities. The household heads, especially farmers and artisans expressed their readiness to serve 

as resource persons to students and teachers alike and are equally ready to release their farmlands and 

workshops as learning laboratories. This view is also supported by the policy maker, but according to 

him, this would also require a change in the school calendar because of this, it becomes a policy issue 

which he cannot do independently but though parliamentary procedures. 

Discussion and conclussion 

Undoubtedly, the education enterprise in Nigeria has experienced some troubles that today 

Nigeria is enmeshed in a hotchpotch system of education that leads to the acquisition of certificates and 

qualifications which are sources of frustration to the recipients because of their irrelevance to their 

environments Baike (2002). He further said that in order to alleviate the problems of crises in 

education, there should be a deliberate policy to promote the appreciation of dignity of labour. The 

situation in the secondary schools is critical because of the lack of employment after graduation, 

moreso since only few of them will transit from secondary schools to university. For instance, Jamb 

sources revealed that in year 2002, about one million candidates sat for University Matriculation 

161


examination (UME) but only 125,000 of the applicants were admitted. 

The findings in this study revealed that poverty is a major problem of the rural dwellers. This is 

because their education has not addressed their needs thus leading to youths seeking employments 

outside the community. The curriculum structure that de-empasizes skill training has not addressed the 

socio-economic realities of the students. Therefore, there is need to review the existing school 

curriculum in such a way that it will address students’ need for out-of-school vocational and skill 

training in line with the view of Atchoanena (2005). To actualize this skill training, there exist in the 

rural communities untapped rich and diversified learning resources with the potential to address the 

deficiencies identified in the curriculum of the formal school system. Obviously, the curriculum and 

the experiences which the students in the rural communities have were at variance with their immediate 

and future needs. 

To make education relevant to the needs of rural dwellers, such education must be attractive and 

perceived as relevant and useful. This, in itself will stimulate demand by stakeholders within the 

community. 

Suggestions and reccomendations 

(1) For a complementary and skill training education to be acceptable by rural dwellers, a general 

curriculum based on the needs assessment of the communities, that will enhance relevance to 

out-of-school and beyond school life in all schools both urban and rural is advocated. This will 

enable students have a choice as to what is suitable to them and their environment. 

(2) Where vocational out-of-school skills are learned this should be examined and certificated and 

it must be of equal value to the education in urban areas e.g. computer education 

(3) The daily or weekly timetable of the secondary schools should be designed to accommodate 

out-of-school vocational and skill training activities. 

(4) The process of curriculum planning and development should be decentralized to adapt its 

structure to local peculiarities 

(5) Finally, for this to be acceptable and accepted by all concerned, government should legislate on 

out-of-school skill training and incorporate such into the Nigerian school curriculum. 

References 

[1] Adelabu, M.A. (1981) Education and The Urban Poor in Nigeria in Makinwa, P.K.and Ozo, 

O..A. (eds.) The Urban Poor in Nigeria. Ibadan Evans Brothers (Nigeria Publishers) Ltd. 

[2] Adelabu, M.A. (1989) Secondary Education in Transition: A Period of Dilemma and Role 

Conflicts for the School Principal, African Journal of Educational Management Vol. 3 No. 1 

January 1989. Department of Educational Management, University of Ibadan Nigeria. 

[3] Adelabu, M.A. (1992) Problems of Universalizing Access and Promoting Equity in Primary 

Education for the Rural Dwellers of Ondo State in Adaralegbe A. (eds.) Education For All: 

The Challenge of Teacher Education. International Year Book on Teacher Education Lagos 

Federal Ministry of Education (with the permission of ICET USA). 

[4] Adelabu, M.A.(2001) Crises In the Education Sector and the Unbroken Cycle of Poverty in 

Afonja Simi et al. (eds.) Research and Policy Directions on Poverty in Nigeria. Center for 

Gender and Social Policy Studies Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife. 

[5] Akinlo, A.E. (2001) Global Trend and Challenges in Afonja Simi et al. (eds.) Research and 

Policy Directions on Poverty in Nigeria. Center for Gender and Social Policy Studies Obafemi 

Awolowo University Ile-Ife. 

[6] Atchoanena, David (2005) Youth Transition to work - A continuous Challenge. IIEP 

Newsletter, Vol. xxiii, No. 2, April - June 2005 UNESCO; Paris. 

[7] Baike, A. (2002) Recurrent Issues in Nigeria Education. Tamaza Publishing Co. Ltd. Zaria. 

[8] Bergman, Hubert (2002) Being a Paper Presented at the “Aid Agencies Workshop Education 

For Rural People: Targeting the Poor” (Rome, December 2002). 

162


[9] Buchholz, J. (1985-1986) Formal and Non-formal Education in Regional Rural Development 

Projects – State of the Art Report and Guidelines, Published by GTZ. 

[10] Ceaver, K.M. and Donovan (1995) Agriculture, Poverty and Policy Reform in Sub-Saharan 

Africa. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 

[11] Christenson, S.L. and Sheridan, S.M. (2001) Schools and Families: Creating Essential 

Connection for Learning. London: The Guilford Press. 

[12] Fafunwa, A.B. (1995) History of Education in Nigeria, George Allen and Unwin, 1974. 

[13] Junaid, M.I. and Umar, A. (1991) Promoting Equity Through Universal Education: An 

Appraisal in Adaralegbe A. (ed.) Education For All: The Challenge of Teacher Education. 

International Year Book on Teacher Education Lagos Federal Ministry of Education (with the 

permission of ICET USA). 

[14] National Policy on Education (1998) Third Edition. Federal Republic of Nigeria, Lagos 

NERDC Press. 

[15] Nikolaus, Van der Pas (2003) In Rethinking Lifelong Learning Policies in Europe Lifelong 

Learning Discourses – Europe In Model-Anonuevo (ed.) Paris Unesco Institute for Education. 

[16] Obanya, P.A.I. (2002) Revitalizing Education in Africa. Ibadan Stirling Horden Publishers 

(Nig.) Ltd. 

[17] Ogwumike, F.O. (2001) Current State of Knowledge on Poverty in Nigeria in Afonja Simi et al. 

(eds.) Research and Policy Directions on Poverty in Nigeria. Center for Gender and Social 

Policy Studies Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife. 

[18] Omideyi, Adekunbi (2003) Rural Exodus, Urban Growth and Development in Addressing Data 

Needs for Sustainable Development in the 21 st Century. National Population Commission, 

Abuja, March 2003. 

[19] Simon, B.S. and Epstein, J.L. (2001) School, Family and Community Partnerships. In Hiatt- 

Michael, D. B. (Ed.) Promising Practices for Family Involvement – Schools, Family and 

School Community Partnerships. Greenwich CT: Information Age Publishing 1-24. 

[20] The World Bank (1996) IFOS/Federal Republic of Nigeria: Poverty and Welfare in Nigeria. 

163


Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations for Learning Dimension, Facilitators and Organization Performance 

Learning Dimensions: 

1. Developing knowledge internally. 

2. Acquiring knowledge developed externally 

3. Accumulating knowledge of products /services 

4. Accumulating knowledge of processes 

5. Knowledge individually possessed 

6. Knowledge publicly available 

7. Formal procedures of sharing learning 

8. Informal practices of sharing learning 

9. Incremental changes 

10. Radical changes 

11. Emphasize on learning engineering/ production technology 

12. Emphasize on learning sale/ service activities 

13. Focus on development of individual/ skills 

14. Focus on development of group skills 

Learning Facilitators: 

1. Scanning imperative 

2. Performance gap 

3. Concern for measurement 

4. Experimental mind-set 

5. Climate of openness 

6. Continuous education 

7. Operational variety 

8. Multiple advocates 

9. Involved leadership 

10. System perspective 

Organization performance 

1. Effective production 

2. Effective marketing 

3. Effective human resources 

4. Effective Completion 

Variables M SD 

164 

2.46 

2.42 

2.61 

2.62 

2.42 

2.27 

2.22 

2.50 

2.64 

2.35 

2.33 

2.64 

2.35 

2.35 

2.75 

2.45 

2.62 

2.35 

2.41 

2.36 

2.42 

2.26 

2.37 

2.49 

2.87 

2.71 

2.39 

2.72 

.44 

.34 

.51 

.47 

.37 

.34 

.50 

.50 

.45 

.49 

.57 

.55 

.43 

.47 

.51 

.46 

.42 

.40 

.44 

.54 

.50 

.45 

.47 

.46 

.31 

.43 

.60 

.50


Table 2 Summary of Comparing Learner Versus Nonlearner Organizations in term of Learning Facilitators and 

Organization Performance 

Learning Facilitators: 

Variables Learners Nonlearners T Sig. 

M SD M SD value T 

1. Scanning Imperative 2.92 .43 2.59 .54 2.2 .03 

2. Performance Gap 2.51 .44 2.39 .48 .8 .41 

3. Concern for measurement 2.73 .44 2.51 .39 1.7 .09 

4. Experimental mind-set 2.46 .35 2.24 .42 1.8 .08 

5. Climate of openness 2.57 .48 2.26 .35 2.4 .02 

6. Continuous education 2.63 .42 2.10 .52 3.8 .001 

7. Operational variety 2.67 .40 2.18 .48 3.7 .001 

8. Multiple advocates 2.47 .38 2.06 .42 3.4 .001 

9. Involved leadership 2.56 .40 2.19 .47 2.8 .007 

10. Systems perspective 2.67 .42 2.32 .45 2.7 .01 

Organization Performance: 

1. Effective production 2.94 .32 2.81 .30 1.4 .18 

2. Effective Marketing 2.89 .40 2.54 .39 2.9 .006 

3. Effective human resources 2.75 .55 2.04 .42 4.7 .0001 

4. Effective competition 2.88 .58 2.62 .41 1.4 .16 

Table 3 Patterns of Organization Learning: Summary of Cluster Analysis of Learning Dimension 

Learning Dimensions Means of 

Cluster Cluster Cluster Cluster Cluster 

1 2 3 4 5 

1. Developing knowledge internally 2.4 2.2 1.9 2.5 2.4 

2. Acquiring knowledge developed externally 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.4 

3. Accumulating knowledge of product/ services 2.6 2.8 3.2 2.6 2.7 

4. Accumulating knowledge of processes 2.3 2.6 2.2 2.6 2.7 

5. Knowledge individually possessed 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 

6. Knowledge publicly available 2.5 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.3 

7. Formal procedures of sharing learning 2.4 2.4 2.1 2.2 2.3 

8. Informal procedures of sharing learning 1.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.4 

9. Incremental changes 2.3 2.3 2.8 2.7 2.6 

10. Radical Changes 2.0 2.3 2.1 2.3 2.6 

11. Emphasize on learning engineering / product 2.1 

technology 

2.4 1.7 2.3 2.5 

12. Emphasize on learning sales / service activates 2.5 2.7 2.6 2.7 2.6 

13. Focus on development of individual skills 1.7 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.3 

14. Focus on development of group skills 2.1 2.3 2.0 2.4 2.4 

165


Table 4 Summary of MANOVA Analysis of Patterns of Organization Learning on Learning Facilitators 

Approx. F Hypoth. DF sig. of F 

Hotellings .93 20 55 

Univariate F Tests with (4,37) D.F. 

Learning Facilitators F Sig. of F 

1. Scanning Imperative .41 .80 

2. Performance Gap .65 .63 

3. Concern for measurement .20 .94 

4. Experimental mind-set .94 .45 

5. Climate of openness .87 .49 

6. Continuous education .29 .88 

7. Operational variety .42 .80 

8. Multiple advocates .75 .56 

9. Involved leadership .82 .52 

10. Systems perspective .82 .52 

Table 5 Summary of MANOVA Analysis of Patterns of Organization Learning on Organization 

Performance 

Approx. F Hypoth. DF sig. of F 

Hotel lings .48 16 .97 

Univariate F Tests with (4,37) D.F. 

Learning Facilitators F Sig. of F 

1. Effective Production .04 .99 

2. Effective Marketing .37 .83 

3. Effective human resources .17 .95 

4. Effective competition .96 .44 

166


A Review of the Enrolment and Performance of Male and 

Female Students in Education / Economics Programme of 

Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria 

Bamidele A. Faleye 

Department of Educational 

Foundations and Counselling, 

Faculty of Education, 



E-mail: delewolu@yahoo.com.au 

Odusola O. Dibu-ojerinde 

Department of Special Education 

and Curriculum Studies, 

Faculty of Education, 

Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria 

E-mail: 

 

Abstract 

The purpose of this study is to review the pattern of enrolment into and performance 

pattern of male and female students on the Education/Economics Programme of Obafemi 

Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Data were collected from the record (in the 

Department) of students into the programme from 1999/2000 session to 2002/2003 session. 

The record of performance of male and female students on the programme were obtained 

from the students’ record as kept in the computer programme designed for results 

processing (known as the ISIS). It was discovered that there are more males than female 

students on the programme and male students performed better than their female 

counterparts. Recommendations on how female enrolment and performance could be 

enhanced were raised. 

Key words: Academic performance, Enrolment, Male and Female. 

Introduction 

A number of authors in the recent past (e.g. Davies, 1999; Okebukola, 1999, 2002 and Makhubu, 2003) 

have discussed the male - female issue in higher education. The focus of discussion ranges from 

student enrolment by university and discipline to situation in higher education as regards male and 

female representation. Most of these authors agreed that the female gender has not been adequately 

represented in a number of areas (courses) either as students or as members of staff. It has also been 

reported in the past that the female learner does not perform as brilliantly as the male child does in the 

subjects or courses that are quantitative in orientation. It is common knowledge that more males than 

167


female students earn first class and upper second class honours degrees in our Universities especially 

in the Engineering courses. In the other way round, it was believed by a number of authors (e.g. 

Kamisky et al., 1997) that the female students perform better in the arts or language – related courses. 

In the case of Economics as a course in the University, a reasonable degree of 

mathematical/quantitative ability is required for good performance. This is evident in the Universities 

Matriculation Examinations (UME) brochure (published by Nigeria’s Joint Admissions and 

Matriculations Board - JAMB) where Mathematics is made a compulsory UME subject. In the same 

manner, the curriculum content of the course (as contained in the approved programme for 

undergraduate Economics by the National Universities Commission [NUC] in Nigeria) shows that 

quantitative courses feature in the course listings for every semester. Without any doubt, any candidate 

with poor background in Mathematics could be considered as lacking the needed cognitive strength for 

successful performance in the Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) degree programme in Economics. 

Performance has been described by a number of Psychologists and Tests & Measurement experts (e.g. 

Kaminsky et al., 1997; Adewolu, 1998; Popham, 2002). The concept in this context refers to the extent 

of demonstrated ability in school work/subjects as observable in the results of semester/sessional 

examinations of the students. In the Faculty of Education, the duration for Education/Economics 

programme is four years for those admitted through the UME (secondary school leavers) and three 

years for students admitted by Direct-Entry (i.e. holders of the Nigeria Certificate in Education - NCE 

or General Certificate of Education - GCE [Advanced Level] ). There is no difference in the admission 

requirements for the course between males and females. Over the years, no attempt has been made to 

examine the performance of students in this teacher-education programme on the basis of sex/gender. 

Again, it is not certain whether the quantitative nature of Economics has led to differences in the 

performance of the male and female students on the programme. 

The objective of this study therefore is to: 

(a) Review the trend of male and female enrolment into the B.Sc. Education/Economics 

Programme at Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU), Ile-Ife in the last four sessions and; 

(b) Carry out an analysis of male and female performance on the programme in the last two 

semesters. 

Research method 

The study is ex-post facto in design as the behaviours to be observed had been exhibited prior to this 

time. All the registered Economics students for the 2002/2003 session in the Department of 

Educational Foundations and Counselling, Faculty of Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 

makes the population for the study. The record of enrolment to the programme was obtained from the 

administrative office of the Department while the performance record was obtained from the ISIS 

record; a computer programme being used for the computation and safe-keeping of students results in 

OAU. Judgement of performance is based on the Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) of the 

students. This ranges from 0 to 5 where 0 – 0.99 Fail (could mean probation or withdrawal); 1.00 – 

1.49 is Pass; 1.50 – 2.39 is 3rd Class; 2.40 – 3.49 is Second Class Lower Division; 3.50 – 4.49 is 

Second Class Upper Division and 4.50 – 5.00 is First Class. 

Results 

The Table 1 shows the total student enrolment figure into the B.Sc Education/Economics Programme 

in the last four sessions. 

168


Table 1: 2002/2003 enrolment in B.Sc. education/economics by sex 

Part i Part ii Part iii Part iv Total 

Session Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 

2002/2003 92 82 49 53 92 63 81 62 314(54.70%) 260(45.30%) 

2001/2002 63 56 87 42 48 46 96 20 294(64.19%) 164(35.81%) 

1999/2000* 77 54 92 64 37 15 67 52 273(59.61%) 185(40.39%) 

232 192 228 159 177 124 244 134 881 609 

Total (%) 54.7 

1 

45.28 58.91 41.09 58.80 4.20 64.55 35.45 59.13 40.87 

*There was no 2000/2001 Session, it was cancelled. 

The result in Table 1 revealed that male students are in majority across the Parts (I – IV) for the 

three sessions being examined. For the current session male students on Education/Economics 

Programme (314) represent 54.70% of total students. The figure for male for the same period is 164, 

which represents 45.30% of total enrolment. In the same vein, male students outnumber their female 

counterparts for 2001/2002 and 1999/2000 sessions. In fact, the figures male and female students are 

294 (64.19%) and 164 (35.81%) respectively for 2001/2002; and 273 (59.61%) and 185 (40.39%) 

respectively for 1999/2000 sessions. 

Looking at the total figures of male/female enrolment for the three sessions, one could see that 

the male students outnumber female across the four levels. 

Looking at Tables 2 and 3, it is evident that the number of male students almost doubles that of 

their female counterparts for each of the first three classes of performance (i.e. First Class, Second 

Class Upper and Second Class Lower Divisions). The situation however changed for those on Third 

Class, Pass and Fail Classes as the proportion of female students outnumbers males at these three 

levels. These results showed that male students have demonstrated greater academic ability in the 

Education/Economics programme at Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. 

Table 2: Academic performance of students by level and CGPA (2002/2003 session) 

Part I Part Ii Part Iii Part Iv Total 

Session Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 

First Class 4.50 – 5.00 4 1 3 - - 2 - - 7 3 

Second Class Upper 

Division 

3.50 – 4.49 

Second Class Lower 

Division 

2.50 – 3.49 

Third Class 1.50 - 2.49 

Pass: 1.00 - 1.49 

0.99 (Probation) 

0. 0.99 (Withdrawal) 

11 

47 

13 

14 

3 

- 

5 

23 

17 

33 

1 

2 

6 

14 

16 

6 

3 

1 

5 

13 

12 

17 

4 

2 

Total 92 82 49 53 92 63 81 62 314 260 

169 

21 

40 

18 

11 

2 

- 

13 

16 

19 

9 

3 

1 

09 

36 

15 

14 

6 

1 

06 

11 

33 

06 

04 

2 

47 

137 

62 

45 

14 

2 

29 

63 

81 

65 

12 

7


Table 3: Percentage of male and female students by class of degree (2002/2003 session) 

Class of degree Male Female Total 

1 7 (70%) 3 (30%) 10 (1.74%) 

2 1 

47 (61.84%) 29 (38.16%) 76 (13.24%) 

2 2 137 (68.50%) 63 (31.50%) 200 (34.84^) 

3 62 (43.36%) 81 (50.90%) 143 (24.91%) 

*Pass 45 (40.91%) 65 (59.09%) 110 (19.16%) 

Fail* 16 (45.71%) 19 (54.29%) 35 (16.10%) 

Total 574 

*The figure for probation and withdrawal have been combined and classified as fail. 

The result in Tables 2 and 3 have reflected a performance trend in which male students have upper 

hand in performance. The number of males also outnumbers their female colleagues on the 

programme. Let us consider graduation from the programme in the recent past for 1999/2000; 

2001/2002 and 2002/2003 sessions as presented in Table 4. 

Table 4: Graduation figures by class of degree and sex for three sessions 

2002/2003 2001/2002 1999/2000 

Class of degrees Male Female Male Female Male Female 

First Class 

- 

- - - *N.A N.A 

Second Class (Upper) 

- 

- 4 - N.A N.A 

Second Class (Lower) 

5 2 8 7 N.A N.A 

Third Class 

5 2 8 4 N.A N.A 

Pass 

- 

- - 1 N.A N.A 

Total 10 4 20 12 N.A N.A 

*N. A. = Not available or within reach in the short time for the submission of this work. 

Discussion 

Just as it was mentioned in the early part of this work that male students are more in number and in the 

quantitative related courses; it has also been revealed here that the trend remained the same for the 

Education/Economic programme at OAU. For the three year period considered for enrolment, the ratio 

of male to female students is almost 6:4 and this is not different form what has been reported by Davies 

(1999) and Okebukola (1999, 2002) that Science/Mathematics related courses or disciplines are ‘arid 

zones’ so to say, for females. Male students are greater in number in these disciplines than their female 

colleagues. 

In the aspect of performance, the result showed that males have dominated in the performance 

chart of the programme over the years. Interactions (by the authors) with the most senior members of 

staff (teaching) in the department revealed that there has not been a time in the history of the 

programme when any female student graduated with a First Class degree in (Education/Economics). 

This could not mean that the feat is unattainable by female students but it is only that boys tend to 

obtain higher grade than female in most quantitative related courses of which Economics is one. The 

result agrees to the submissions of Okebukola (2002) that the total female enrolment in Nigerian 

University as at the beginning of the 2001/2002 session is 34%. When compared with the result for the 

same period in this study, female enrolment in B.Sc. Education/Economics programme is 35.81%. The 

closeness of the figure could be a product of some of the factors raised by Okebukola (as those 

responsible for the gender gap in education) such as those that are curriculum related; instructional 

related and those relating to the administrative system in our institutions. Davies (1999) listed some 

170


factors - such as the use of language to transmit negative messages; being partial to male learners, 

confirming high expectations by verbal and non verbal means e.t.c. – that tend to put male learners at 

advantage over their female counterparts. All these could be responsible for the concentration of the 

female students at the lower level of the performance scale (Class of the Degree). 

Conclusion 

It is hereby concluded that male students outnumber their female counterparts in enrolment into the 

B.Sc. Education/Economics Programme and the male students perform better than the female students 

across the levels (Parts I – IV) and especially for the sessions considered in this study. 

Recommendation 

It is recommended that the cut-off points for admission into the programme (whether through UME or 

Direct Entry) be made lower for girls as suggested by Mlamal (1998) so that more female students 

could be enrolled into the programme. 

It is also recommended that further investigations be carried out on reasons why the male 

students on the programme perform better than their female counterparts. 

References 

[1] Adewolu, B. A. (1998). Predictive Validity of Osun State Junior Secondary Certificate 

Examination for Academic Performance of Students in the Senior Secondary School. 

Unpublished Master of Education Thesis, Faculty of Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, 

Ile-Ife. 

[2] Crowl, T. K.; Kaminsky, S & Podell, D. M. (1997). Educational Psychology, Windows on 

Teaching. Dubuque, I. A.: Brown & Benchmark. 

[3] Davies, A. (1999). Empowering women for success in Higher Education. Contribution to 

UNESCO Draft Guide to Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. In Promoting Women’s 

Participation in Higher Education.http://www.nucvihep.net/mod8WK3-Tuesday.htm 

Viewed on 4th April, 2004. 

[4] Mlama, P. M. (1998). Increasing Access and Equality in Higher Education: Gender Issues. In 

J. Shabani (Ed.), Higher Education in Africa: Achievements, Challenges and prospects. Dakar: 

UNESCO BREDA. 

[5] Okebukola, P. (1999). Gender Equity in Science Classrooms. Conference Paper Presented at 

the 1999 UNESCO’s Conference in Pretoria South Africa. 

[6] Okebukola, P. (1999). The State of Universities in Nigeria. Ibadan: Heinemann. 

[7] Popham, W. J. (2002). Classroom Assessment: What Teachers Need to Know. Boston: Allyn & 

Bacon. 

171


Pre-College Economic Education: 

Aim, Usefulness and Content 

Despina Makridou-Boussiou 

Associate Professor in Economics and Didactics 

Department of Applied Informatics 

University of Macedonia 

156 Egnatia Street 

546 45 Thessaloniki 

Greece 

E-mail: bousiou@uom.gr 

Abstract 

This paper refers to pre-college economic education. More specifically, the subjects 

discussed include: the goals, objectives, usefulness and basic concepts of pre-college 

economic education. Most economists who deal with pre-college economic education point 

out the following goals: (1) students’ exposure to and understanding of economic concepts, 

so that they may acquire economic education, (2) the use of the economic way of thinking 

for decision-making with respect to the resolution of personal and social problems, and (3) 

the contribution of economic education to the political education of citizens. With respect 

to basic economic concepts that should be taught at pre-college level, in spite of the fact 

that nowadays principles of economics courses cover more subjects in terms of content and 

have become more complex at the analytical level, the paper will focus on the Master 

Curriculum Guide in Economics: A Framework For Teaching the Basic Concepts 

(Saunders, and others, 1984). In each case, what will be taught remains an important issue. 

Keys Words: Pre-college Education, Economics, Economic Literacy, Basic concepts 

Introduction 

The emergence of economic phenomena in people’s daily lives is very frequent. It would be very 

difficult to find certain social, personal or natural phenomena that do not alter the total economic 

situation of a society or the personal economic situation of an individual. "Indeed, we encounter 

economics as workers, consumers, savers, and citizens, and we make countless personal and societal 

decisions of great practical importance every day in response to various kinds of economic issues and 

problems" (Banaszak, 1987:1). Therefore, in the epicentre of economic science we find an individual 

person or many people as a social whole, as well as their decisions and activities that arise from their 

effort to face the consequences of economic events or to benefit as much as possible from them. 

Economic theory tries to recognize, describe, explain, interpret and forecast the changes that arise from 

the emergence of various types of economic events. 

Even though a vast body of knowledge and theories has been created in economic science, the 

impression should not be given that this knowledge is also the final tool for the interpretation of 

economic phenomena. Economic science, just as all other sciences, is a continuously evolving body of 

172


knowledge that is subject to additions or revisions, depending of course on the changes that occur to 

society itself, which also creates the economic phenomena. Notions that were once acceptable are 

rejected today, for example sixteen-hour workday without insurance. Of course, other ideas that are 

accepted today were considered problematic in the past. Boskin (1990:19) notes that in the middle of 

the 1980s an unemployment rate of 6-7%, accompanied by mediocre growth and a low inflation rate of 

4% was acceptable for the United States of America. He himself wonders what ever became of the "4- 

4-1" rule which they had got used to in the old days; in other words, 4% growth, 4% unemployment 

and 1% inflation. More recently, respective adjustments to economic goals are being made based on 

events and tendencies such as globalization, technological progress, immigration or the European 

unification. Instructively, these changes in theoretical approaches and objectives must provide a basis 

for a productive and non-dogmatic approach to economic theories and the awareness of countless 

variables that determine the economic life of societies. Banaszak (1987:1) distinctively notes that 

"educators generally tend to agree that the discipline of economics is dynamic; the economy and our 

knowledge of it continue to evolve. Thus, educators must continually assess the economics curriculum 

in terms of the current status of the academic discipline in order to provide students with the latest and 

soundest view of economic life in the United States and the world". 

Aims, objectives and usefulness 

Most economists who deal with economic education point out the following goals: 

• Students’ exposure to and understanding of economic concepts, so that they may acquire 

economic education. 

• The use of the economic way of thinking for decision-making with respect to the resolution of 

personal and social problems. 

• The contribution of economic education to the political education of citizens. 

With regard to the first goal, McConnell (1990:35) observes that "at the most general level, we would 

perhaps all agree that we seek to achieve (1) a usable level of economic literacy for those students who 

do not go beyond the principles course, and (2) a viable foundation of economic understanding for 

those who will pursue upper-division courses. At the most mundane level, we seek to generate 

continuing interest in economic issues and problems". 

With regard to the second goal, Banaszak (1987:5) concludes that "since economics is the study of 

decision making about the use of productive resources, the central benefit of education for economic 

literacy should be development of the ability to conduct objective, reasoned analysis of economic 

issues and decisions are private and public; they pertain to daily personal concerns and to matters of 

broad economic policy". Sumansky (1986:61) considers that with the passing of time, this second goal 

has become as important as economic concepts. 

With regard to the third goal, Banaszak (1987:5) maintains that "informed decision making 

requires acquisition and use of knowledge of economic concepts and generalizations. This knowledge 

allows citizens to understand the economic dimension of issues. It permits them to determine and 

evaluate both the short-term and long-term consequences of potential economic decisions. 

Economically literate citizens will be more intelligent readers and listeners. This will enable them to 

participate intelligently in the political process and to be less easily misled by a demagogue. Finally, 

the economically literate citizens will be life-long learners, capable of incorporating new economic 

knowledge into their already existing knowledge". 

On the same wavelength Seiter (1988) adds that the knowledge of economics and its ability to 

be applied to important problems is an essential element for a responsible coexistence in a democratic 

173


society. He maintains that citizens should understand and use economic notions with a view to act 

appropriately whether they are producers, consumers, investors or voters in government elections. 

Furthermore, a general progress in the ability of citizens to respond to these roles will have major 

advantages not only for the citizens but also for the state. Conversely, he supports the idea that the 

personal and social costs resulting from a weak reciprocation to these roles is so high and damaging, 

that it cannot be ignored. 

Miller (1991), who is among the most zealous representatives of this point of view, considers 

economic education to be an integral part of the political education of citizens. Sumansky (1986:61) 

does not adopt this view; he believes that the argument that economic education contributes to political 

education is maintained simply because it is alluring, since, as he claims, the notion that economic 

knowledge translates into better citizen behaviour remains inexplicable. 

Beyond the three goals identified above, McConnell (1930:36) expresses an additional point of 

view with regard to the cognitive benefit that can result from the teaching of economics, supporting 

that "…one can plausibly argue that a highly significant outcome of the principles course is enhanced 

students ability to grasp and manipulate abstractions. Piaget’s theory of human intellectual 

development distinguishes between the lower "concrete level" of mental achievement, which involves 

specific facts on experiences and that of the higher "formal level" of achievement, which entails 

analytical reasoning about hypotheses, the mental manipulation of abstractions and the understanding 

of contrary-to-fact situations. The distinction made is particularly relevant for the principles course, 

because the most baffling concepts of economics tend to be those that are the most abstract. Instructors 

often respond to student’s complaints about the abstractness of economics by pointing out that 

economics is formalized common sense. But this is only partly true. The concept of comparative 

advantage and the multiple-lending capacity of the banking system are contrary to common sense and 

intuitively incorrect in the minds of students”. 

What are the basic concepts? 

An obvious observation that should be made is that, with the passing of time, the course on the 

principles of economic theory covers more subjects in terms of content and has become more complex 

at the analytical level. There are a greater number of topics covered and the concepts and definitions 

are more difficult. The unprecedented, post-war explosion of economic knowledge added plenty of 

new concepts, theories and empirical analyses that ask to be included in the introductory courses. 

McConnel (1990) describes a disagreement that has been taking place for many years in the 

field of economic education with regard to the number of economic concepts that should be taught in 

an introductory course. Either few concepts will have to be taught in-depth (short list) or a greater 

number of concepts will have to be taught with less time dedicated to each (long list). There has been 

continuous criticism that the course “Principles of Economics” is very ambitious (with regard to the 

subject-matter), it covers a lot of topics and is encyclopaedic. The advocates of the “short list” believe 

that the “long list” condemns the course to failure. They support that the material covered in the “long 

list” is too big in volume for students. The result of students’ superficial exposure to a wide range of 

concepts, definitions, theories, problems and established ideas, is that they complete the course without 

a substantive understanding of economic logic. Thus the students will be unprepared to analyze 

economical problems that they will face as citizens or in their career five or ten years following their 

graduation. 

The opposing opinion claims that the “short list” does not guarantee students’ increased 

understanding. “Another potential problem of the short list is that it consists of those concepts that 

pertain only to the course and nothing further. If one of the aims of the course is to develop and 

maintain an interest for the subject, one can wonder whether an uninterrupted diet based on economic 

theory can promote the objective. Perhaps it is rash for students to be led from a desert land of 

economic theory, to the oasis of subjects and applications of the real world and to forbid them to have a 

drink” (McConnel, 1990:32). 

174


According to Sumansky (1986), the search for a core of basic economic concepts that would 

have to be taught in secondary education as well as the discussion on other ideas relative to economic 

education began in the USA in 1946, with the legislative act on employment (Employment Act, US 

Congress). This legislative enactment permitted Congress “to coordinate and exploit all available 

resources with a view to creating and maintaining the greatest work force, production and purchasing 

power”. One of the results of this enactment was the establishment of an economic council (President's 

Council of Economic Advisors), of which Edwin Nourse was named the head. Nourse stressed the 

need for the economic education of citizens and to this day, his ideas continue to influence the progress 

of economic education in the USA. 

As Sumansky (1986:50) mentions, the following proposals are stated in Nourse’s papers with 

regard to economics and economic education: 

• Economics is a life skill. 

• Economics has value not only for knowledge for its own sake, but also because of what it can 

contribute to the lives of people. 

• Economics, indeed, must be taught to those who do not go on to college. 

• Teachers must be helped to teach economics to students. 

• Economics must be simplified and made meaningful to life. 

• Economic reasoning is important. 

• Economic knowledge can contribute to an enlightened citizenry. 

Under the influence of these proposals, the National Task Force on Economic Education was formed in 

1960, consisting of distinguished economists in those days, which unanimously supported the 

introduction of economics in pre-college level because it is for students’ and society’s own good and 

its provision should not be left to the mechanisms of the market (Sumansky, 1986:52). The report of 

the committee, along with two directives that were published within the framework of the program 

DEEP (Developmental Economic Education Program), drafted 135 economic concepts. 

These documents consist of the original edition of A Framework for Teaching Economics: 

Basic Concepts that was published in 1977 (Hansen et al, 1977) and revised in 1984 (Saunders et al, 

1984) and in 1995 (Saunders and Gilliard, 1995). The framework is limited to 24 concepts that are 

considered essential for the development of well-thought-out economic ideas. Also within the 

framework, the idea of rational decision-making is fully developed and a model of six steps is 

proposed: determination of the problem, identification of objectives, search for alternative solutions, 

identification of essential concepts, analysis of the consequences of each alternative solution, 

evaluation to identify the best solution. What is not explained in the framework is the method with 

which these concepts will be taught. 

The list of concepts, as presented in the Framework of 1977 (Hansen et al, 1977:9) is the following: 

• The basic economic problem 

1. Economic wants 

2. Productive resources 

3. Scarcity and choices 

4. Opportunity costs and trade-offs 

5. Marginalism and equilibrium 

• Economic systems 

6. Nature and types of economic systems 

175

7. Economic incentives 

8. Specialization, comparative advantage and the division of labour 

9. Voluntary exchange 

10. Interdependence 

11. Governmental intervention and regulations 


• Microeconomics: resource allocation and income distribution 

12. Market, supply and demand 

13. The price mechanism 

14. Competition and Market structure 

15. "Market Failures": information costs, resource immobility, externalities, etc. 

16. Income distribution and government redistribution 

• Macroeconomics: economic stability and growth 

17. Aggregate supply and productive capacity 

18. Aggregate demand: unemployment and inflation 

19. Price level changes 

20. Money and monetary policy 

21. Fiscal policy: taxes, expenditures and transfers 

22. Economic growth 

23. Savings, investment and productivity 

• The world economy 

24. International economics 

The 1977 framework did not go without criticism. More specifically, on the one hand, Sumansky 

(1986) reports that economists such as Boyer allege that it reflects the sovereign ideology of the 

business society, the government and the majority of university economists; on the other hand, Helburn 

(1985:21) reports that “it does not emphasize model building as a process of abstraction which students 

can and should learn how to use; rather, it reinforces the notion, rampant in economics, that models are 

mathematical and are created by experts”. 

Conclusion 

Economic education has made a lot of progress in the last forty years. During this period the bases for 

further growth of economic education were put in place. Today the rapid growth of technology offers 

new opportunities. The amount of information that could be used by teachers increases with 

geometrical progression. 

On the one hand, any teacher of economics would be considered particularly lucky with regards 

to the amount of educational material that he has in his disposal. As long as people keep abreast of the 

daily news, they will notice that at least one to two reported events deal with the economy. Newspapers 

dedicate a considerable part of their content to economic events on a daily basis. Very often heir main 

news is of an economic nature and the existence of a daily-specialized journal with such breadth of 

circulation is most likely unprecedented for an educational subject. In essence, many electronic 

strategic games that are set in various historical environments are games of an economic nature, since 

the concepts used are economic concepts and the progress of the game is based on the player’s 

decision-making. The Internet offers vast amount of economic information. 

On the other hand, proper exploitation of all this information is a very difficult challenge. 

Solow (1983) stresses that “...to teach Economics is a very big responsibility...” The updating on the 

176


progress of economic education, the improvement in the teaching of economics at each educational 

level and the contribution in the further development of economic education should be the direction for 

those who teach economic courses. 

References 

[1] Banaszak, A. Ronald (1987). The nature of economic literacy, online at 

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/2a/0b/8a.p 

df 

[2] Boskin, J. Michael (1990). Some thoughts on teaching principles of macroeconomics. In: 

Phillip Saunders and William B. Walstad (ed.). The principles of economics course: A 

handbook for instructors. McGraw-Hill. 

[3] Buckles, Stephen (1991). Guidelines for economic content in school programs. In: William B. 

Walstad and John C. Soper (eds.). Effective Economic Education in the schools. The Joint 

Council on Economic Education. 

[4] Hansen, W. L., Bach, G. L., Calderwood, J. and Saunders, P. (1977). Master Curriculum Guide 

in Economics for the Nation’s Schools, Part I – A Framework for Teaching Economics: Basic 

Concepts. New York: Joint Council on Economic Education. 

[5] Helburn, W., Susanne (1986). The selective use of discipline structures in economics curricula. 

In: Steve Hodkinson and David J. Whitehead (eds.). Economics Education Research and 

Development Issues. Longman 

[6] McConell, R. Chambell (1990). Some reflections on the principles course. In: Phillip Saunders 

and William B. Walstad (eds.). The principles of economics course: A handbook for 

instructors. McGraw-Hill. 

[7] Miller, Steven, (1991). Making the Case for Economics in the School Curriculum. In: Walstad, 

William and Soper, John (eds.). Effective Economic Education in the Schools. Joint Council on 

Economic Education and National Education Association. 

[8] Saunders, P. and J. Gilliard (1995). A framework for teaching basic economic concepts, with 

scope and sequence guidelines, K–12. New York: National Council on Economic Education. 

[9] Saunders, P., Bach, G. L., Calderwood, J. and Hansen, W. L. (1984). Master Curriculum Guide 

in Economics: A Framework for Teaching the Basic Concepts. New York: Joint Council on 

Economic Education. 

[10] Seiter, David (1988) Economics in the Curriculum, online at 

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/2a/0d/6a.pdf 

[11] Solow, R. (1983). “Teaching Economics in the 1980’s” Journal of Economic Education, 

Spring:65-67. 

[12] Sumansky, M. John (1986). The evolution of economic education thought as revealed through a 

history of the Master Curriculum Guide. In: Steve Hodkinson and David J. Whitehead (eds.). 

Economics: Framework for teaching the basic concepts. Longman. 

177


An Assessment of the Contact between Agricultural Extension 

Agents and Farmers in Delta State of Nigeria 

Ofuoku, A. U. and Uzokwe, U. 

Department of agricultural economics and extension, 

Delta state university, 

Asaba campus, nigeria. 

Abstract 

Agricultural Development Programme was established with the aim of promoting food, 

Production ensure self-sufficiency. To achieve this aim, the programme embarked on 

extension service to farmers and the major strategy employed is the Training and Visit (T 

& V) system. This implies fortnightly visits to farmers, especially the contract farmers. One 

hundred and ninety-five respondents which include 35 Agricultural Extension 

Administrators; 40 Extension Agents; 60 Contact Farmers; and 60 Non-Contact Farmers 

were randomly selected, but Contact Farmers were systematically selected for this study. 

The results showed that the overall evaluation by the respondents on the extension services 

was good. The Contact Farmers had more contact with the Extension Agents than the Non- 

Contact Farmers. Transportation problem was the major constraint of Agricultural 

Extension Agents. It was recommended that Delta State ADP should extend their services 

equally to formers; the quality and number of extension staff be increased; and service 

amenities be provided for Extension Officers especially transport facilities. 

Key Words: Assessment, Contact, Agricultural Extension Agents, Farmers, Delta State, 

Nigeria. 

Introduction 

Agricultural Extension process is mainly carried out in Delta State, Nigeria by the State’s Agricultural 

Development Project (ADP). The Agricultural Development Project (ADP) was conceived as a framework 

involving investment in agriculture to improve the level of iving of the resource – poor farmers 

(Chukwu, 1997). The ADP system is based on the assumption that agricultural productivity can be 

enhanced with a combination of appropriate technology, effective extension, access to physical inputs, 

adequate market and other infrastructural facilities (Alabi, 1987). ADPs motivate rural farmers towards 

better and improved plant and animal production practices through a systematic extension system. 

The specific objectives of the ADP were to promote the production of food, to achieve selfsufficiency 

in food in the state and provide basic communication network that would facilitate 

increased food production. The farmers are reached by the ADP through a revitalized agricultural 

extension system that integrates extension Worker’s training and farm visits, and a two-way 

communication between farmers and researchers. According to Asiabaka (1987), ADPs also employ an 

intensive training strategy based on the Training and Visit (T & V) strategy to reach the rural clientele. 

This helps to motivate small-scale farmers to produce more food cheaply. 

The regular contact of extension workers with farmers under the Training and Visit system 

makes effective linkages between research and extension (Benor and Baxter, 1984). 

178


Particular relevance and importance in T & V extension approach are the use of contact farmers, On- 

Station Research (OSR), and On-Farm Training (OFT) on farmers’ farm, schedule of visit and training 

sessions for block extension supervisors and extension agents by subject matter specialists. 

Isife and Madukwe (1995) suggested that evaluation of the Fortnightly Training Programme of the 

ADP is necessary to determine the extent to which the objective of the training programme is achieved, 

and identify problem areas that need to be strengthened. 

The ADP extension Agents in Delta State, in line with the above information have the 

obligation of regular contact with the farmers. This is one of the reasons they should reside within their 

circle. With this, prompt attention to farmers by extension will be achieved. 


The objectives of the study were (i) determine the regularity of the contact between the extension 

agents and farmers in Delta State, Nigeria. (ii) ascertain the problems facing extension agents in ADP 

of Delta State. 

Materials and Methods 

The study area is one of the thirty six state in Nigeria. It comprises of twenty-five (25) Local 

Government Areas. 

The study was conducted with sample population of thirty-five (35) agricultural extension 

administrators/supervisors from Delta State ADP and Ministry of Agriculture who operate in the area 

of study. Systematic sample of sixty (60) contact farmers and random sample of sixty (60) non-contact 

farmers were selected from the three agricultural zones of Delta State. Forty (40) extension agents in 

the three agricultural zones of the state were randomly selected. 

Two sets of questionnaire were used to generate data for this study. The first set was for the 

agricultural extension staff, while the second set was for the farmers (contact and non-contact). To 

avoid subjectivity, if ADP staff were allowed to interview farmers, agricultural science teachers with 

teaching experience of five years and above, teaching in secondary schools located in the study area 

were selected and hired to interview the farmers. The extension agents and administrators completed 

their own questionnaire. 

Five points Likert’s Scale was used for the possible responses that the respondents were asked 

to make regarding each of the items: excellent scored 5, good scored 4, fair scored 3, poor scored 2 and 

non-existent services scored 1. percentage, mean and Chi-Square X 2 were also employed in the 

analysis of the data. 


The results of the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents are shown in Table 1. 

Age: 

Sixty-three percentage (63%) of the respondents were aged between 30 – 49 years. This indicates that 

most of them are in the middle age bracket. Those in the age interval of 50 – 59 years made up 24%. 

This group could be regarded as fairly old. Most of the Extension Administrators fall within this age 

bracket. Those who were in 20 – 29 years made 11%. These are the young ones. 

Gender: 

Of all the respondents, 87% were males, while 13% were females. This does not mean that females 

were not highly involved in agricultural activities in Delta State. Females in this part of Nigeria have 

their own farms and also work in the ADP. 

179


Level of Education: 

Those that did not have formal education make up 5% of the respondents. In brief, mot of them (95%) 

had no form of formal education or the other. This also implies that most of the farmers were formally 

educated. The literacy level of the farmers must have influenced their awareness of extension agents 

and their services. This closely relates with the study of Madukwe (1995) where he stated that 

educational level of farmers is one of the isolated variables related to the adoption of improved farm 

practices. 

Hypotheses: 

To achieve the set objectives, the following null hypotheses were formulated: 

1. There are no significant differences in the assessment of ADP extension services in Delta State 

as scored by the respondents in the overall evaluation of the four components of the agricultural 

extension services. 

(i) Agricultural extension education programmes; 

(ii) Agricultural extension human relations; 

(iii) Agricultural extension information; and 

(iv) Agricultural extension methods. 

2. There are no significant differences in the ratings of the contact between farmers and extension 

agents in Delta State as viewed by 

(i) Extension Administrators; 

(ii) Extension Agents; 

(iii) Contact Farmers; and 

(iv) Non-contact farmers. 

3. The effective discharge of duty by extension officers and the effectiveness of their services as 

perceived by the respondents were not affected by 

(i) Fringe benefits; 

(ii) In-Service training; 

(iii) Fortnightly meetings; and 

(iv) Transportation. 

Marital Status: 

Most of the respondents (86%) in the study area were married. Only 6.22% were single and were most 

likely going to be the few young farmers and extension agents (11%) who were part of the sample 

population. The young ones have gone out of the rural areas in search of education and “white collar” 

job opportunities. 

180


Table I: Demographic Characteristics of respondents 

Variables Categories Frequency Percentage 

Age 

(years) 20 – 29 21 11 

30 – 39 54 28 

40 – 49 62 34 

50 – 59 46 24 

Above 59 12 6.2 

Total 195 100.0 

Gender 

Male 170 87 

Female 25 13 

Total 195 100.0 

Education Level 

No Formal Education 10 5 

Adult Education 23 12 

Primary School 

Education 

36 18 

Secondary School 

Education 

48 25 

Post Secondary 

School Educ. 

78 40 

Total 195 100.0 

Marital Status 

Married 168 86 

Single 12 6.2 

Separated 15 8 

Total 195 100.0 

Hypothesis 1 

There are no significant differences in the assessment of ADP extension services in Delta State as 

scored by the respondents in the overall evaluation of the four components of the extension education 

services. 

(i) Agricultural extension education programmes; 

(ii) Agricultural extension human relations; 

(iii) Agricultural extension information; 

(iv) Agricultural extension methods. 

Findings 

The overall evaluation showed that there were no significant differences among the four areas of 

extension evaluated. As indicated in table 12 below, there were no significant differences as the 

respondents scored Extension Education Programmes 3.29; Extension Human Relations 3.69; 

181


Extension Information 3.24; and Extension Methods 3.70. This is generally scored good. This implies 

that the agricultural extension services aimed at bringing about change in behaviour of the farmers 

were effective. 

Table 2: Overall Evaluation of the Four Areas (Components) of Extension Services by the Four 

Groups of Respondents 

Areas (Components of Extension Services 

Respondents N Education Human Information Extension 

Agricultural 

Extension 

Programmes Relations 

Methods 

Administrator 

Agricultural 

Extension 

3.5 

3.97 3.67 3.94 3.68 

Agents 

Contact 

40 3.71 4.10 4.15 4.17 

Farmers 

Non-Contact 

60 3.26 3.04 3.49 3.72 

Farmers 

60 2.03 2.35 3.21 3.25 

Total Mean 195 3.24 3.29 3.69 3.70 

Hypothesis 2 

There are no significant differences in the rating of the contact between farmers and extension agents 

in Delta State as viewed by 

i) Extension Administrators; 

ii) Extension Agents; 

iii) Contact Farmers; and 

iv) Non-Contact Farmers. 

Findings 

The analysis (Table 3) below showed significant differences between the different groups of 

respondents with respect to contact between farmers and extension agents. A comparative analysis 

indicates that the contact farmers had more contact with the extension agents than the non-contact 

farmers. 

The findings reveals that most of the contact farmers, 34 out of 60 of them or 58% as against 18 

out of 60 or 30% of the non-contact farmers accepted that the extension agents met them fortnightly. 

Table 3: Contact between Agricultural Extension Agents and Farmers. 

Frequency of Contact 

Respondents N Very 

Often 

Sometime Rarely Weekly Monthly Fortnightly Total 

Extension 

Administrators 

Extension 

35 - 3 0 0 0 32 32 

Agents 

Contact 

40 - - - 8 4 28 40 

Farmers 

Non-Contact 

60 7 4 11 4 - 34 60 

182


Farmers 60 - 13 5 9 15 18 60 

Column Total 195 7 20 16 21 19 112 195 

Significant at P


Table 3b: Innovation introduced by Extension Agents During their Contact With Farmers. 

Categories of Constraints 

Respondents N Disease Improved Agro- Fertilizers Modern % of Total 

Contro 

l 

Varieties Chemical 

Implements 

Extension 

Administrator 

Contact Farmers 

Extension 

Agents 

Non-Contact 

Farmers 

35 

60 

40 

60 

(195) 

11.42 

- 

5.00 

1.66 

3.58 

(7) 

65.70 

70.00 

65.00 

66.6 

67.17 

(131) 

% % % % 

2.85 

5.00 

10.00 

3.33 

5.12 

(10) 

184 

20.00 

25.00 

20.00 

26.60 

23.58 

(46) 

- 

- 

- 

1.66 

0.51 

(1) 

17.94 

30.76 

21.60 

30.76 

100 

Actual number of respondents in brackets 

Table 3b above shows that most of the respondents, 67.17% agreed that the improved varieties 

of crops were introduced to them for adoption. This was followed by the use of fertilizer 23.58%/ 

disease control measures 3.58%; and use of modern implements, 0.51% 

Sixty-five percent (65%) of the extension agents strongly accepted that their major points of 

emphasis during contact with farmers was the adoption of improved varieties of crops. This was 

confirmed by 68% of the farmers. 

Hypothesis 3 

The effective discharge of duty by extension officers and the effectiveness of their services as 

perceived by the respondents were not affected by 

(i) Fringe benefits; 

(ii) In-Service training; 

(iii) Fortnightly training and 

(iv) Transportation 

Findings 

In table 4, the majority of the respondents (68%) are of the opinion that inadequate transportation is a 

problem to the effective performance of extension officers and their services. 

This is a confirmation of Adams (1984) statement that costs of transportation are high. 

Adequate transportation is very important for extension agents to carry out their work effectively. 

Table 4 below shows the constraints of the effective performance of extension officers and their 

services.


Table 4: The Constraints to the Effective Performance of Extension Agents and Their Service. 

Categories of Constraints 

Respondents N Fringe In-Service Fortnightly Transportation 

Benefit Training Training 

Extension 

Administrator 

% % % % 

Extension 

35 29.92 14.23 - 

18.04 

Agents 

Contact 

40 25.92 17.85 14.28 20.30 

Farmers 

Non-Contact 

60 22.22 32.14 28.571 32.33 

Farmers 

60 25.92 35.71 57.14 29.32 

13.84 14.85 3.58 68.20 

(195)a (27) (28) (7) (133) 

Figures in brackets are the actual numbers of the respondents. 

The findings in Table 4 show that 68.28% of the respondents agreed that inadequate transportation is a 

constraint facing the effective performance of extension agents and their services as against 32% who 

did not agree. Those of them that did not agree are of the opinion that fringe benefits, in-service 

training and fortnightly meeting are minor constraints. 

Conclusion 

The purpose of this study was to assess the regularity of contact between agricultural extension agents 

and farmers and the constraints facing agricultural extension agents in Delta State, Nigeria. 

The perceptions of the farmers and extension officers within the state with reard to educational 

prorammes, human relations, information and extension methods of the extension services were also 

investigated. 

The study also look into the frequency of contact between the farmers and extension agents in 

Delta State ADP, whether or not training and Visit (T & V) system has made any impact on 

agricultural development in Development in Delta State. 

Most of the respondents are of middle age and are also male in majority. Majority of them had 

one form of formal education or the other. Most of them are married. 

The overall evaluation did not show any significant difference among the extension 

administrators; extension agents, contact and non-contact farmers in their ratings of agricultural 

extension educational programmes, extension officers’ human relations, agricultural information; and 

extension methods. This indicated that agricultural extension services were effective. 

The contact farmers were mainly visited by the extension officers than the non-contact farmers. 

This is an indication that the extension services do not reach all farmers. This called for equal 

extension services through equal contact with all farmers which will eventually enhance agricultural 

development in the state. 

Transportation problem was a significant constraint to the effective performance of the 

extension officers and their services. Others were inadequate in-service training and inadequate fringe 

benefits. These bottle-necks implied that majority of the farmers were not reached. 

The Training and Visit (T & V) system has made some impact on agricultural development, 

185


especially in he area of increasing agricultural production, though, not enough. For the impact to be 

adequate, there is need for “equal opportunity” contact between extension agents, and contact and noncontact 

farmers. 


1. Delta State ADP and ministry of Agriculture should extend their services equally to all farmers, 

both contact and non-contact. This will enable them to benefit equally from extension services. 

2. The equality and number of ADP extension officers should be increased to enable them have 

more contact with all the farmers. They should be sent on in-service training regularly to enhance 

their performance. 

3. The Delta State ADP should encourage their staff by providing service facilities/amenities 

especially transportation and fringe benefits. The problem of transportation could be addressed 

through vehicle loans, vehicle maintenance allowance, and rural/vehicle usage allowance. 

References 

[1] Adams, M.E. (1984): agricultural Extension in Developing Countries Essex: Longman. 108pp 

[2] Alabi, J.O. (1987): “Evaluation of Agricultural and Rural Development Programmes 

[3] In Nigeria: A study of the REDA and ADP systems,” Paper Presented at 

[4] Seminar On Management Problems in Agriculture and Rural Development in Nigeria Obafemi 

Awolowo University, Ile-ife. Pp 25 – 31. 

[5] Asiabaka, C.C. (1987): “International Organisation’s Role in Agricultural and Rural 

Development in Nigeria: The Need for Human Resources Development.” 

[6] Nigeria Journal of Rural and Community Vol. 1 Pp 94 – 101. 

[7] Benor, D. and M. Baxter (1984): Training and Visit (T & V) Extension. 

[8] Washington D. C.: The World Bank Publication. 

[9] Chukwu, A. O. (1997): An Assessment of ADP on Agricultural Development of Imo State of 

Nigeria, Unpublished M.Sc. thesis in the River State University of Science and Technology, 

Port-Harcourt. 

[10] Isife, B. I. And M. C. Madukwe (1995): “An Evaluation of Fortnightly Training Programme in 

Enugu State Agricultural Development Programme”. Nigeria Journal of Agriculture Teacher 

Education Vol. IV No. 2. Pp 12 – 20. 

[11] Madukwe, M. C. (1995): “Obstacles to the Adoption of the Yam Minisett Technology by Small 

Scale Farmers of South Eastern Nigeria”. 

[12] AGROSEARCH Vol. 1, No. 1, Pp 1 – 5. 

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