Qualitative_data_analysis

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WHAT IS QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS? 51 necessary to the subjects of our study (cf. Sayer 1992:103–116). We can understand how things happen if we can attribute them to the inherent capabilities and liabilities of social actors, be they individuals, agencies or whole societies. For example, we could also attribute the pattern of male-female connections to the capabilities inherent in certain types of media and advertising. Other media and forms of advertising (e.g. in gay magazines) might produce rather different results. In terms of such capabilities and liabilities, we can reach a qualitative understanding of how events are connected. Although I have implied that we first look for regularities or variations, and then consider how they might be connected, this is a curiously indirect way of identifying how things interrelate. It is not that regularities are irrelevant, for they can provide a guide to analysing connections, even if potentially misleading and far from conclusive. However, the search for regularities has to be considered as a way of assisting rather than substituting for the analysis of connections between events. In the first instance, a qualitative approach implies analysis of the inherent capabilities and liabilities of social actors, and how these interact to produce particular effects. A concern for capabilities in turn requires an analysis of social structure. By this, I mean the social roles, identities, agencies and institutions which create a network of interdependent relations between actors. These may have a decisive effect in creating or reducing capabilities for action. My power to influence events is subject to a variety of opportunities and constraints, reflecting my various identities (husband, father) and roles (lecturer, researcher), my status as an employee, the decision-making structure of my department and university, and so on. These relations may be variously economic, social or personal in character, but they all interact in ways which govern my actions and determine or influence my choices. We can use graphic tools to represent chronological or narrative sequences within the data, contributing to the construction of an overall case study (Figure 3.7). Another connection between concepts is through structural or causal analysis. For example, we may have some ideas about what makes for successful contacts. These can be easily graphed, at least where only a few factors are involved (Figure 3.8). Graphic representation is an especially appropriate method for qualitative analysis (cf. Miles and Huberman 1984), for it provides an effective way of coping with complex interactions, indicating the key concepts employed and their inter-relation. Pictures provide a powerful tool for capturing or conveying meaning. How we analyse our data will reflect the hunches or hypotheses which inform our research. This is so, regardless of whether our chief purpose is the development of academic theory or the evaluation of a particular policy. Nor does it matter particularly if we have developed some theoretical ideas prior to analysis, or develop hunches and hypotheses through analysis of the data. Either way, we cannot classify or make connections without developing some more systematic ideas about the
52 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS Figure 3.7 Connections between chronological or narrative sequences Figure 3.8 Causal connections between concepts data. Indeed, our overriding concern will be the development of an overall view of our data. In this respect, we need to extend our analogy from blocks and mortar to include a plan of what we are constructing. Depending on our aims and the stage of our research, this plan may be simple or complex, implicit or explicit, dimly perceived or closely articulated. It makes a difference if we are constructing the equivalent of a simple wall or a complicated palace. But even the equivalent of a wall imposes some discipline and direction, with one block being placed on top of another; otherwise the result will simply be a chaotic mess. The analysis must be informed at least by some sense of what our overall research objectives may be.
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Qualitative data analysis Learning
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First published 1993 by Routledge 1
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Glossary 283 References 285 Index 2
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9.1 Categorizing data—1 120 9.2 C
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3.1 Personal ads 42 5.1 ‘The libr
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Preface A new book on qualitative d
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analyse humour from any number of p
Page 16 and 17: Q. What colour is snow? A. White. C
Page 18 and 19: INTRODUCTION 3 approaches, interest
Page 20 and 21: INTRODUCTION 5 qualitative methods.
Page 22 and 23: INTRODUCTION 7 First of all, I take
Page 24 and 25: INTRODUCTION 9 the purposes of anal
Page 26 and 27: WHAT IS QUALITATIVE DATA? 11 distan
Page 28 and 29: WHAT IS QUALITATIVE DATA? 13 contem
Page 30 and 31: WHAT IS QUALITATIVE DATA? 15 ‘ric
Page 32 and 33: classified. Take the example in Ill
Page 34 and 35: Figure 2.1 Describing a bit of data
Page 36 and 37: WHAT IS QUALITATIVE DATA? 21 home;
Page 38 and 39: Figure 2.4 Nominal variable with mu
Page 40 and 41: Figure 2.6 Interval variable with f
Page 42 and 43: ILLUSTRATION 2.2 EXAMPLE OF A GRADI
Page 44 and 45: WHAT IS QUALITATIVE DATA? 29 what a
Page 46 and 47: Chapter 3 What is qualitative analy
Page 48 and 49: Figure 3.2 Three aspects of descrip
Page 50 and 51: WHAT IS QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS? 35 co
Page 52 and 53: WHAT IS QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS? 37 en
Page 54 and 55: WHAT IS QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS? 39 Th
Page 56 and 57: CLASSIFICATION WHAT IS QUALITATIVE
Page 58 and 59: nature; photograph preferred but no
Page 60 and 61: WHAT IS QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS? 45 vi
Page 62 and 63: WHAT IS QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS? 47 Fi
Page 64 and 65: Figure 3.6 Formal and substantive c
Page 68 and 69: WHAT IS QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS? 53 If
Page 70 and 71: Figure 3.10 Qualitative analysis as
Page 72 and 73: Chapter 4 Introducing computers ‘
Page 74 and 75: ecording of an index of information
Page 76 and 77: Figure 4.1 A link between text held
Page 78 and 79: Computer transformations • Search
Page 80 and 81: Chapter 5 Finding a focus A Zen sto
Page 82 and 83: FINDING A FOCUS 67 Sheila The solic
Page 84 and 85: FINDING A FOCUS 69 to reflect upon
Page 86 and 87: For example, here are some question
Page 88 and 89: Transposition: Doctor: ‘I’m afr
Page 90 and 91: Figure 5.2 Main themes for analysin
Page 92 and 93: Chapter 6 Managing data Piles of pa
Page 94 and 95: MANAGING DATA 79 setting, by source
Page 96 and 97: MANAGING DATA 81 Interviewer Maybe
Page 98 and 99: Figure 6.1 Case documents kept in a
Page 100 and 101: MANAGING DATA 85 ‘Show the full r
Page 102 and 103: Chapter 7 Reading and annotating Ac
Page 104 and 105: • Official/bureaucratic commitmen
Page 106 and 107: READING AND ANNOTATING 91 women wer
Page 108 and 109: Techniques for interactive reading
Page 110 and 111: we can write our comment on a separ
Page 112 and 113: Figure 7.1 Relating data to key the
Page 114 and 115: READING AND ANNOTATING 99 may retur
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CREATING CATEGORIES 101 types of ph
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CREATING CATEGORIES 103 conceptual
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CREATING CATEGORIES 105 Categorizat
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Table 8.1 Alternative category list
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This is only a starting point. Our
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CREATING CATEGORIES 111 undertaking
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Figure 8.2 Weighing up the degree o
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CREATING CATEGORIES 115 Although co
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CREATING CATEGORIES 117 for an adeq
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CREATING CATEGORIES 119 well as con
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Figure 9.2 Categorizing data—2 Fi
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are entitled to expect some consist
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ASSIGNING CATEGORIES 125 we ought t
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ASSIGNING CATEGORIES 127 the data.
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have annotated this data. Suppose w
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ASSIGNING CATEGORIES 131 suddenly t
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• What generally constitutes a
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Databits Categories 5. Now she is u
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Chapter 10 Splitting and splicing T
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Using Hypertext linking, whenever n
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SPLITTING AND SPLICING 141 databits
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Category Subcategories Suffering Di
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Figure 10.1 Levels of subclassifica
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ILLUSTRATION 10.5 SUBDIVIDING DATAB
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Figure 10.2 Initial relationships b
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If we want to make this change, it
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Figure 10.5 Reassessing relationshi
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SPLITTING AND SPLICING 155 Although
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Figure 10.8 Comparing subcategories
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Figure 10.9 Shifting the analytic e
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Chapter 11 Linking data Categorizin
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Figure 11.2 Multiple hyperlinks bet
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example, we may ask what it is abou
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Figure 11.5 Linking and categorizin
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Figure 11.7 An explanatory link bet
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Table 11.2 Multiple links between d
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our reasons for making decisions an
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Figure 11.11 Conditional and causal
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Chapter 12 Making connections Imagi
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Figure 12.1 The difference between
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Table 12.1 Concurrence between cate
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Table 12.4 Boolean operators for ca
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From Table 12.6 we can tell that mo
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Notice how this cross-tabulation co
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substantive connections between cat
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Figure 12.5 Following a trail of di
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Figure 12.7 Retrieving chronologica
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This approach is very exploratory,
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MAKING CONNECTIONS 197 Table 12.10
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MAKING CONNECTIONS 199 a consequenc
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Chapter 13 Of maps and matrices A n
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Table 13.1 Comparing information ac
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OF MAPS AND MATRICES 205 [In a calm
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Table 13.5 Data indices by case and
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Table 13.7 Recoding data to express
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Table 13.11 Cross-tabulating ‘occ
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Figure. 13.4 The history of the uni
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Figure 13.7 Incorporating detail by
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Figure 13.10 Comparing differences
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Figure 13.13 Adjusting scope of mos
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Figure 13.17 Comparing strength of
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Figure 13.20 Identifying positive a
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OF MAPS AND MATRICES 225 undercurre
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Chapter 14 Corroborating evidence
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CORROBORATING EVIDENCE 229 There is
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CORROBORATING EVIDENCE 231 describe
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CORROBORATING EVIDENCE 233 of these
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Figure 14.1 Concurrence between cat
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CORROBORATING EVIDENCE 237 possibil
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CORROBORATING EVIDENCE 239 that the
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CORROBORATING EVIDENCE 241 seductiv
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CORROBORATING EVIDENCE 243 research
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Chapter 15 Producing an account ‘
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PRODUCING AN ACCOUNT 247 An analysi
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Figure 15.2 The whole is greater th
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Figure 15.3 Tree diagrams represent
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PRODUCING AN ACCOUNT 253 associatio
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worrying unduly about the connectio
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Figure 15.5 Different writing strat
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PRODUCING AN ACCOUNT 259 the vibrat
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Figure 15.7 Procedures for assignin
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PRODUCING AN ACCOUNT 263 consistent
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Table 15.1 Databits assigned to cat
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Table 15.3 Distribution of response
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PRODUCING AN ACCOUNT 269 To be subj
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PRODUCING AN ACCOUNT 271 analysts t
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Figure 16.3 Analysis as an iterativ
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CONCLUSION 275 empirical analysis o
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Appendix 1 ‘If the Impressionists
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APPENDIX 1 279 though it had been o
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Appendix 2 Software The reader look
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Glossary Associating categories the
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References Allen, Woody (1978) ‘I
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REFERENCES 287 Sperber, Dan and Wil
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Capra, F. 29, 64, 99 case studies 1
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Galtung, J. 14 Geer, B. 7, 8, 29, 5
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connections; description qualitativ
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