W. Richard Bowen and Nidal Hilal 4

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274 9. APPLICATION OF ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPy [79] K.H. Christenson, P.M. Claesson, Cavitation and the interaction between macroscopic hydrophobic surfaces, Science 239 (1988) 390–392. [80] J.C. Fisher, The fracture of liquids, J. Appl. Phys. 19 (1948) 1062–1067. [81] R.J. Speedy, Stability-limit conjecture. An interpretation of the properties of water, J. Phys. Chem. 86 (1982) 982–991. [82] Q. Zheng, D.J. Durben, G.H. Wolf, C.A. Angell, Liquids at large negative pressure: water at the homogeneous nucleation limit, Science 254 (1991) 829–832. [83] D.R. Berard, P. Attard, G.N. Patey, Cavitation of a Lennard–Jones fluid between hard walls, and the possible relevance to the attraction measured between hydrophobic surfaces, J. Chem. Phys. 98 (1993) 7236–7244. [84] P. Attard, Bridging bubbles between hydrophobic surfaces, Langmuir 12 (1996) 1693–1695. [85] Y.L. Chen, T. Kuhl, J. Israelachvili, Mechanism of cavitation damage in thin liquid films: collapse damage vs. inception damage, Wear 153 (1992) 31–51. [86] T. Kuhl, M. Ruths, Y.L. Chen, J. Israelachvili, Direct visualisation of cavitation and damage in ultrathin liquid films, J. Heart Valve Dis. 3 (1994) 117–127. [87] L. Rayleigh, On the pressure developed in a liquid during the collapse of a spherical cavity, Phil. Mag. 34 (1917) 94–98. [88] M.S. Plessett, A. Prosperetti, Bubble dynamics and cavitation, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 9 (1977) 145–185. [89] J.R. Blake, D.C. Gibson, Growth and collapse of a vapour cavity near a free surface, J. Fluid Mech. I 11 (1981) 123–140. [90] T.B. Benjamin, A.T. Ellis, The collapse of cavitation bubbles and the pressures thereby produced against solid boundaries, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 260 (1966) 221–240. [91] T.G. von Leeuwen, J.H. Meertens, E. Velema, M.J. Post, C. Borst, Intraluminal vapor bubble induced by excimer laser pulse causes microsecond arterial dilation and invagination leading to extensive wall damage in the rabbit, Circulation 87 (1993) 1258–1263. [92] R. Vorreuther, R. Corleis, T. Klotz, P. Bernards, U. Engelmann, Impact of shock wave pattern and cavitation bubble size on tissue damage during ureteroscopic electrohydraulic lithotripsy, J. Urol. (Baltimore) 153 (1995) 849–853. [93] P. Zhong, I. Cionta, S. Zhu, F.H. Cocks, G.M. Preminger, Effects of tissue constraint on shock wave-induced bubble expansion in vivo, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 104 (1998) 3126–3129.
C H A P T E R 10 Future Prospects The preceding chapters have shown that the use of AFM has already made substantial contributions to understanding and improving processes across a wide range of engineering. The literature on such applications is very extensive, so the aim of the present book has been to focus on some key examples in depth rather than to attempt a comprehensive overview, which would necessarily have been either unreasonably lengthy or else unsatisfyingly superficial. It is our hope that we have given an account of the principles, achievements and possibilities of AFM that is sufficiently informative for experts in other areas of process engineering to envisage how their own work may be enhanced using the techniques described. Owing to the broadness of the field, it is difficult to envisage where the most important developments are likely to take place in the future. However, we have asked the authors of the preceding chapters to give a brief account as to how they would see the use of AFM in their own specialties developing, with the following results. The importance of AFM lies in its capability to provide better understanding of materials’ structure, surface characteristics and the interactive forces at the meso- and nanoscale level. This will greatly help understand large-scale engineering processes, especially as materials are increasingly being designed down to the submicrometre level. The developments of colloid, coated-colloid and cell probe techniques have already opened new windows of applications to a variety of engineering processes including those involving bubbles, such as flotation, and processes within the biotechnology sector. For example, characterisation of membrane surface morphology and forces of interaction with colloidal particles and cells has facilitated the development of synthetic membranes with greatly improved process-separation characteristics. As synthetic membranes play a key role in water treatment, including desalination, such use of AFM is likely to be an increasingly important application. Similarly, AFM studies of particle-bubble interactions can play a major role in optimising mineral separations, one of the largest-scale of all process operations. However, Atomic Force Microscopy in Process Engineering 275 © 2009, Elsevier Ltd
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x Preface in their work. Hence, it
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xii Preface them from hostile condi
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xiv About thE Editors Professor Nid
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xvi List of Contributors Dr Daniel
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2 1. BAsIC PRINCIPLEs OF ATOMIC FOR
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32 2. MEASUREMENT OF PARTICLE ANd S
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82 3. QUANTIFICATION OF PARTICLE-BU
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C H A P T E R 4 Investigating Membr
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4.2 THE RANgE OF POssIbILITIEs FOR
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4.2 THE RANgE OF POssIbILITIEs FOR
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4.3 CORREsPONdENCE bETwEEN sURFACE
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4.3 CORREsPONdENCE bETwEEN sURFACE
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4.4 IMAgINg IN LIqUId ANd THE dETER
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4.4 IMAgINg IN LIqUId ANd THE dETER
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4.5 EFFECTs OF sURFACE ROUgHNEss ON
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4.6 ‘vIsUALIsATION’ OF THE REjE
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4.7 THE UsE OF AFM IN MEMbRANE dEvE
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Dfractional 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1
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4.8 CHARACTERIsATION OF METAL sURFA
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At pH 5.5, dissolution began to occ
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REFERENCEs 137 [4] W.R. Bowen, N. H
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C H A P T E R 5 AFM and Development
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5.2 MEAsUREMENT OF ADHEsION OF COLL
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5.2 MEAsUREMENT OF ADHEsION OF COLL
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The antibacterial activity of initi
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5.3 MODIFICATION OF MEMBRANEs 147 t
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5.3 MODIFICATION OF MEMBRANEs 149 B
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Force (nN m -1 ) Loading force (mN
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5.3 MODIFICATION OF MEMBRANEs 153 p
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Adhesion force (mN m -1 ) 10 8 6 4
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Adhesion force (mN m -1 ) 20 15 10
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5.3 MODIFICATION OF MEMBRANEs 161 F
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5.4 MODIFICATION OF MEMBRANEs wITH
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5.4 MODIFICATION OF MEMBRANEs wITH
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Å 200 100 0 5.4 MODIFICATION OF ME
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AbbrEvIAtIonS And SyMbolS NOM Natur
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REFERENCEs 171 [29] W.R. Bowen, T.A
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174 6. NANOSCALE ANALySIS Of PHARMA
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196 7. MICRO/NANOENgINEERINg ANd AF
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