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American Pragmatism, Sociology and the Development of Disability Studies people. Data inform this process and help inform the planning and organization of state policy. Thus, the surveillance of health status is both an ancient practice and nearly universal among nation states.” Furthermore, they agree with OBERSHALL’S contention (1972) that “the demand for extensive and detailed information by ‘social reformers, civic groups and philanthropists’ was the foundation of much statistical work in the nineteenth century” (2001:70). These purposes of disability statistics still pertain today. The difference is that current methodological and statistical techniques allow researchers to address social, cultural and environmental effects in a more precise and integrated fashion (BROWN 2001). This exercise has stimulated social scientists and disability scholars to refine the theories and models which they use to understand disability and its effects, health and social interventions, the physical and social environment and the outcomes of different social policies. While the purposes of measuring disability and counting disabled people are reasonably clear, these activities are fraught with difficulty and controversy. This is because disability is a “complicated, multidimensional concept” (ALTMAN 2001:97), the endpurposes of disability measures are multiple and identification can have negative consequences, such as labeling and discrimination, for disabled people. Debates over these issues can be vividly seen in the on-going controversies regarding the World Health Organization’s development and use of ICIDH codes to classify disability and the Global Burden of Disease Project jointly sponsored by the World Bank and the World Health Organization (ALTMAN 2001; FUJIURA and RUTKOWSKI-KMITTA 2001). Regardless of ideological position or predilection for a particular scientific method, this - 33 - Heilpädagogik online 03/ 03
American Pragmatism, Sociology and the Development of Disability Studies quantitative research on disability reflects the influence of sociology and some key principles of pragmatism on disability studies. The pragmatic theme of undertaking investigations where the results are likely to produce work that shapes social policy and politics is also reflected in the qualitative and socio-historical approaches to sociology and disability studies. Both the pragmatists and neo-pragmatists exert their influence on contemporary sociology and disability studies. Among qualitative and cultural studies scholars today, there is a strong emphasis on the social construction of reality, the importance of individual experience, culture and context on interpreting behavior and texts, listening to the “voices” of the people being studied, and “discourse” among and between scholars and the people being studied. Harvard University and the University of Chicago were two institutions, among others, where pragmatism and qualitative and sociohistorical research provided a foundation for entire areas of sociological work and disability studies. This is not a teleological tale in which there is a direct causal link between individuals, disciplines and departments. Nevertheless, pragmatism and compatible sociological “schools” have flourished at both Harvard and Chicago for years. William JAMES was at Harvard at the turn of the century where he had a significant influence on numerous sociologists including the extraordinary African American scholar, W.E.B. DU BOIS (1961), who studied with JAMES and called himself a “realist pragmatist” (KLOPPENBERG 1998: 539). Today Cornel WEST and Hillary PUTNAM are neo-pragmatists at Harvard who have an impact on current sociologists and cultural studies scholars including William WILSON, a recent past President of the American Sociological Association and Theda SKOCPOL. WILSON’s work on the meaning of work for inner city Blacks, social policies - 34 - Heilpädagogik online 03/ 03
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