Nicola Arndt und Matthias Pohl - Neobiota

Table 1: Biogeographic classifications and concepts based on ecosystem approaches (Wascher after GRABHERR
& KOIJMA 1993)
Year Initiative
1898 V.V. Dokuchaev: proposed a concept of soil as a functional product of climate, parent material, relief,
organism, and time.
1903 C. Raunkiaer: suggests the distinction of life-forms
1941 H. Jenny: Factors of Soil Formation
1951 J. Major: vegetation and soil to constitute an inseparable complex which may be termed a
‘phytogeocoenosis’, emphasising a causal relation between vegetation and environment.
1916 F.E. Clements: climax vegetation (plant succession)
1929 G.E. Nichols: Plant associations and their formations
1937 W.E.D. Halliday: Forest Classification for Canada
1950 E.L. Braun: vegetation at the formation rank mainly considered as a product of climate and
represented as a climatic climax.
1935 A. Tanseley: coins the notion of ‘ecosystem’ for a complex of natural systems
1945 V.N. Sukachev: coins the term ‘bio-geocoenosis’ (comparable, but only at community level)
1973 H. Ellenberg: ecosystem classification of the world, addressing primary productivity, trophic
characteristics, macroclimate, soil character – mainly based on vegetation formation
1975 Udvardy: Biogeographic provinces
1976 H. Walter: criticises Ellenberg as being central European, suggesting the biome system as
fundamental unit (e.g. orobiomes = mountain systems) to which zonal vegetation can be assigned.
1960 V.J. Krajina: biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification integrated climate, vegetation and soil
characteristics at two levels (region + site specific), highest biogeoclimatic formation comparable to
Clements.
1947 L.R. Holdrige: World Plant Formations on basis of climatic data
1956 H. Lieth: Correlation between average climate levels and vegetation formations
1970 R.H. Whittaker: correlating broad regional vegetation at the formation level directly with environment,
particular climate
1985 R.B.H. Bunce: Development of a European land classification
1989 Bailey: Eco-regions of the world
1991 E.O. Box: plant functional types were assigned climatic tolerances
1992 European Commission: Biogeographic map for the Habitats Directive (EEC/43/92)
1996 Rivas-Martinez & Penas: Biogeographic Map of Europe
1999 Marco Painho: Digital Map of European Ecological Regions (commissioned by the European
Environment Agency)
Traditionally, plant geographers were concerned with explaining the distribution of different types of
plants in physiological terms, and some of the basic mechanisms involved in cold tolerance and
drought resistance, for example, have been known for decades (PRENTICE et al. 1992). For example,
Köppen’s scheme was intended as a classification of climates, although its boundaries were chosen to
coincide approximately with vegetation boundaries and are expressed in terms of aspects of climate
(particular seasonality) that are relevant to plants. On the other hand, Holdrige’s approach related
potential natural vegetation to climate, although its boundaries reflect areas of consistent climate that
is defined by annual precipitation and growing season temperatures.
While earlier schemes such as the ones by Köppen and Holdridge took biomes as statically defined
entities, BOX (1981) described a model in which almost 100 plant functional types were assigned
climatic tolerances (upper and/or lower bounds) for six climate variables expressing levels and
seasonality of temperature and precipitation and a moisture index expressing potential evapotranspiration.
An ‘environmental sieve’ based on these climatic limits determines which plant types
could occur in a given climate.
In recognition of the potential value of a detailed and internationally agreed-upon biogeographic map
for environmental reporting on issues such as biodiversity and landscapes, the European Environment
Agency initiated the development of a Digital Map of European Ecological Regions. The map is based
on two recent digitised maps, namely the Map of Natural Vegetation of Europe (BOHN et al. 2000),
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